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Ankhekhonsu: A 3,000-Year-Old Priest’s Mummy in Bergamo
Visiting Bergamo’s Archaeological Museum: The Ankhekhonsu Mummy and Sarcophagus
Located in the charming Città Alta (Upper Town) of Bergamo, Italy, the Archaeological Museum is a compact regional institution well worth a short visit, especially for those interested in ancient Egypt. If you plan to go, note that many Italian museums close for a lunch break, and the entire exhibition here can be explored in under 10 minutes.
Address: Piazza della Cittadella 9, 24129 Bergamo.
The museum is very modest in size. The centerpiece is the mummy and sarcophagus of Ankhekhonsu, a priest of Amun. Other displayed artifacts include shabtis (funerary figurines), bronze statuettes, amulets, and a faience necklace. Egyptian items are thoughtfully mixed with local Roman-era finds and other regional archaeological material.
For visitors seeking more extensive Egyptian collections in Italy, consider these excellent alternatives:
- Sforza Castle in Milan
- Archaeological Museum in Florence
- Archeological museum in Turin
All three offer high-quality, varied, and well-preserved Egyptian artifacts on a much larger scale.
Beyond the museum, Bergamo — though relatively small — boasts an astonishing number of beautifully decorated churches. Their rich art and architecture often surpass those found in Venice or Milan, making them a must-see if you are traveling to Milan or Lake Como.
History and Provenance of the Egyptian Collection
The Archaeological Museum of Bergamo’s Egyptian holdings reflect the 19th-century European fascination with ancient Egypt, a period often called the “Epoch of the Consuls.” During this time, European consuls in Egypt played a major role in acquiring and exporting antiquities to museums across the continent.
In June 1885, the city received its most significant Egyptian donation: a mummy and its sarcophagus, gifted by Giovanni Venanzi, a Bergamo-born lawyer who served as Italian Consul in Alexandria from March 1885 to October 1889. These two objects form the core of this tiny collection, which also includes three bronze statuettes, several shabtis, amulets, and a faience necklace.
The sarcophagus can be reliably traced thanks to technical details, historical context, and Venanzi’s own records. It arrived in a large crate aboard the steamer Asia of the Florio-Rubattino company, accompanied by documentation and an expertise from the renowned Egyptologist Ernesto Schiaparelli. Venanzi’s letter to the mayor of Bergamo confirms the sarcophagus originated from Luxor (ancient Thebes).
Ankhekhonsu’s sarcophagus belongs to the class of “yellow sarcophagi.” It was likely acquired shortly before 1891, when the official discovery of the tombs of Amun’s priests at Deir el-Bahari (Bab el-Gasus cache) took place. Many such sarcophagi had already been removed by clandestine excavators. The inscriptions identify Ankhekhonsu as a wab (pure) priest and scribe of the temple of Amun.
The origins of most smaller objects remain unknown. A few items carry partial provenance labels, such as gifts from Polish General Jlembiski (Turin, 1859), Temistocle Solera (received from the Khedive, 1864–65), and others linked to railway director Mr. Mocchi. In 2002, three additional Egyptian finds were transferred from Bergamo’s Natural Science Museum, including an “Egyptian gallinaceous mummy” (1902) and a mummy hand with a terracotta oil lamp (1933).
Restoration of the Mummy
The mummy of Ankhekhonsu arrived in poor condition after centuries of degradation and earlier looting. A clean cut through the bandages on the chest and head suggests past attempts to retrieve jewelry or amulets. The skull had become detached and was repositioned on a modern support made of cotton wadding, straw, wood shavings, and original bandage fragments.
Previous iron hooks used to secure it to a wooden board had caused further damage. Like many mummies, it suffered from environmental factors: humidity fluctuations, light exposure, mechanical stress, and possible issues from the original embalming process.
Recent restoration followed the principle of minimum intervention. Conservators stabilized the organic material by removing dust, pollutants, and mechanical stress without using glues or adhesives that could cause long-term contamination. The original shape was restored, and the wrappings were reinforced with a protective nylon tulle sewn with polyester thread over a linen ribbon.
Analysis confirmed the bandages are made of linen in a simple canvas weave with an S-twist. The wrapping spirals around the body, varying in width — narrower at the skull and pelvis, wider over the chest. A second, finer fabric layer was identified at the shoulders.
From the museum’s description:
The mummy belongs to a man of Caucasian descent, who died at about the age of 40-45. He was between 168.65 and 177.7 cm tall, that is taller than the average for his times. His name, written on the sarcophagus, was Ankhekhonsu. He was a wab priest and a scribe in the temple of Amon Ra, in Thebes.
Its radiocarbon dating, obtained from a bone fragment, is 1107-912 BC. This data was obtained from the studies on Ankhekhonsu’s mummy with non-invasive investigation techniques. The skeletonized skull, which was exposed and
placed on a ‘pillow’ made with bandages and textile material, is the only part of the body studied in an autoptic way.
Before the restoration, the mummy was placed on a wooden board and fastened with iron hooks on the abdomen and on the ankles. This arrangement allowed to display it vertically, upon its arrival in Bergamo. It was evident that the conditions inside the thick wrapping were not good, as documented by old radiographies. In the empty space left in the neck area there were vertebrae, phalanges and some teeth.
The mummy was subjected to computed tomography (CT) to carry out a thorough study without opening the bandages; the body was completely skeletonized and devoid of almost all anatomical connections. An endoscopy allowed us to explore inside the mummy and confirmed the state of alteration of the skeleton; it also allowed us to take samples without compromising its state of preservation.
On the basis of the skull morphology it was possible to establish that the mummy belongs to a male adult, approximately between 40 and 45 years old, of probable Caucasian descent; in ancient Egypt genetic exchange was favored by the movement of different peoples. The ethmoid bone, at the base of the skull, is intact and this, together with the presence of decomposed brain tissue inside the cranial cavity, allows us to believe that the perforation to extract the brain during the embalming process did not take place.
The chest and abdomen section is filled with disarticulated bones belonging to the collapsed thoracic area and to the hands. Above them a wrap, probably made of fabric, could be the visceral package, used to fill the mummy after the organs had been removed. The arms had been bandaged separately. The forearm joint is intact, while the shoulders are dislocated. They were probably stretched along the sides and not crossed on the chest. The femurs and pelvis are located at the abdominal level, without connection, and the feet bones are scattered, too. Only the tibiae and fibulae are still properly connected, perhaps due to the fact that they were wrapped separately.
Ankhekhonsu’s Sarcophagus: A Masterpiece of the Third Intermediate Period
Ankhekhonsu (“The god Khonsu lives”) lived between the late 21st and early 22nd Dynasty (approximately 969–900 BC) during the Third Intermediate Period. His anthropoid sarcophagus, made of cedar wood, consists of a trough, outer lid, and an inner lid placed directly over the mummy. The shallow trough suggests it was originally housed in a larger outer sarcophagus that is now lost.
The wood shows 42 holes in the base, likely for drainage of mummy ointments and fluids. Three layers of stucco prepare the surface: coarser straw-and-mud mixtures underneath, finished with fine white gypsum plaster for the vibrant yellow background and multicolored paintings.
Key decorative features include:
- Relief face with large eyes, defined ears, tripartite wig, and ritual beard.
- Red stole over the shoulders and a broad collar with lotus petals.
- Crossed hands holding papyrus rolls.
- Scenes featuring Osiris, Isis, Anubis, Nut, Maat, Ra, Horus, and Hathor.
- Hieroglyphic inscriptions and a frieze of uraei and Maat feathers.
Ankhekhonsu and his wife, Henut-neferet (“Lady of the house and singer of Amun-Ra”), appear multiple times in offering scenes. This sarcophagus exemplifies the high-quality “yellow sarcophagi” of the 21st Dynasty, with shiny orpiment yellow pigment, Egyptian blue, iron oxide reds, and other colors.
Non-invasive analysis confirmed the pigments: orpiment (yellow), Egyptian blue (blue), iron oxides (red), and calcium carbonate (white). Some green and ocher tones likely come from later restorations.
This small but fascinating collection offers a personal glimpse into ancient Egyptian funerary practices and the adventurous 19th-century world of antiquities collecting. A quick stop in Bergamo’s Città Alta pairs perfectly with a deeper exploration of Italy’s richer Egyptian holdings in Milan and Florence.
This information is based on the display I saw in the Bergamo’s archeological museum.
Ernesto Schiaparelli’s Excavations:
Ernesto Schiaparelli (1856–1928) was a prominent Italian Egyptologist, director of the Museo Egizio in Turin (from 1894), and founder of the Italian Archaeological Mission (Missione Archeologica Italiana, or MAI) in Egypt. His work significantly expanded the Turin museum’s collection, making it one of the world’s leading repositories of Egyptian artifacts (with roughly 30,000 objects from his expeditions). Before leading major excavations, he reorganized the Egyptian collection at the museum in Florence (1881–1894). As director in Turin, he focused on building a world-class collection through systematic fieldwork rather than just purchases.
Major Excavations and Discoveries:
In 1902–1903, with support from King Vittorio Emanuele III (and later the Italian Ministry), Schiaparelli established the MAI. Between 1903 and 1920, he led about 12–13 excavation seasons across 11 sites, primarily in northern and southern Egypt. The mission operated under official concessions from the Egyptian Antiquities Service and used the partage system (dividing finds between the excavators and Egypt).
Schiaparelli’s campaigns covered a wide range of periods and sites:
- Valley of the Queens (1903–1906): Pioneering systematic work here (with collaborator Francesco Ballerini). He explored over 80 tombs. The standout discovery was the tomb of Queen Nefertari (QV66), great royal wife of Ramesses II, in 1904. Though looted in antiquity (mummy and treasures gone), it is renowned for its exceptionally preserved, vibrant wall paintings. He also found tombs of princes (sons of Ramesses III) and other royals.
- Deir el-Medina (1905 onward): The workmen’s village for those who built the royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings. In 1906, he discovered the intact tomb of Kha and Merit (TT8), an architect and his wife from the reign of Amenhotep III (c. 1400 BC). This tomb, with its complete funerary equipment, is one of the most important non-royal discoveries and is displayed in Turin.
- Giza (Western Cemetery, from 1902): Italian concession in the southern section (shared with German and American teams). Focused on Old Kingdom tombs.
- Heliopolis (1903–1906): Excavations in the temple area (“Tempio del Sole”), uncovering structures, artifacts, and evidence from various periods, including a prehistoric village.
- Other sites: Asyut/Assiut (rock-cut tombs, Middle Kingdom material), Hermopolis Magna (initially for papyri), Gebelein (Predynastic burials), Qaw el-Kebir, and Aswan (including the tomb of Harkhuf).
His work spanned Predynastic to New Kingdom periods, yielding artifacts that illuminated daily life, religious practices, royal burials, and more.
Legacy and Publications of the egyptologyst:
Schiaparelli’s excavations enriched the Museo Egizio immensely and professionalized Italian Egyptology. Many finds remain key exhibits today, including material from Nefertari’s tomb and the Kha/Merit assemblage. He published scholarly works such as studies on the Egyptian Book of the Dead, religious feelings of the Egyptians, and reports on specific tombs (e.g., La Tomba Intatta Dell’architetto Kha, 1927). He died on February 14, 1928. Modern projects continue to study and publish his unpublished excavation records.
In regards to the Bergamo’s mummy, Schiaparelli provided an expertise (authentication/report) for the Ankhekhonsu sarcophagus and mummy when they arrived in Italy in 1885 — consistent with his expertise as a leading Egyptologist and museum director by that time.
https://www.britishmuseum.org/blog/learn-maths-egyptian-secrets-rhind-mathematical-papyrus
The Egyptian Amulets Meaning:
Amulets in Ancient Egyptian Culture
Ancient Egyptians placed great faith in amulets, believing they possessed powerful magical properties that could protect, heal, and aid the deceased in the afterlife. The Egyptian language had four main terms for these objects: meket, nehet, sa, and udjat (or udja). The first three conveyed ideas of vigilance and protection, while udjat carried the same sound as the word for “well-being” and referred to the protective Eye of Horus.
The Power of Amulets
An amulet’s effectiveness depended on several factors:
- Its shape and symbolic form
- Magic formulas or spells engraved upon it
- The material it was made from
- Its color
Different materials and colors carried specific meanings:
- Lapis lazuli symbolized youth and vigor.
- Turquoise represented fertility and rebirth.
- Green stones such as feldspar and serpentine evoked fertility, life, and resurrection.
- Red jasper embodied fire, blood, and vital life force.
When precious stones were too costly, Egyptians frequently used faience — a glazed ceramic that could be colored to imitate more expensive materials like turquoise or lapis lazuli.
How Amulets Were Used
Amulets were worn or placed in various ways:
- Hung individually around the neck or strung into necklaces
- Sewn onto clothing
- Wrapped within mummy bandages
- Set into finger rings as bezels
Common Types and Their Meanings
Divine Figures and Symbols Many amulets depicted gods and goddesses, placing the wearer under their divine protection. Popular symbols included the Isis knot (tyet) and the udjat eye (Eye of Horus).
Animal Forms Animals were common because many gods manifested in animal form and because of the creatures’ perceived special qualities.
- The frog amulet promised fertility to the living and regenerative powers to the dead.
- The scarab beetle, often placed on the mummy’s chest, symbolized renewal and resurrection. The so-called “heart scarab” bore a magical spell on its underside instructing the heart not to testify against the deceased during the Weighing of the Heart ceremony (psychostasis) in the afterlife judgment.
Human Body Parts Amulets shaped like parts of the human body were believed to heal, strengthen, or protect specific areas from illness and injury.
These small but meaningful objects formed an important part of the Egyptian collection in Bergamo’s Archaeological Museum. Their presence alongside the mummy of Ankhekhonsu helps illustrate the rich funerary beliefs and protective magic that accompanied ancient Egyptians into the afterlife.
Art books from the artist:
Dante’s Divine Comedy: The Epic Masterpiece Illustrated
Written in the early 14th century (between1304-1316), Dante Alighieri’s Divine Comedy is a three-part epic poem that details a visionary journey of a man through the afterlife. It’s a masterpiece of Italian literature that describes the soul’s journey from the circles of Hell to the spheres of Heaven. As a living being Dante travels through the dark realms and encounters monsters, ghosts, and tortures of the dead for their sins. Unlike the dead men stuck in fixed state, Dante can still change his fate traveling across realms with Virgil, his guide. As he moves upwards toward God, Dante encounters Beatrice, angels, and people who died honorably. At the end of his journey, he meets God. These realms is an allegory of the Christian soul’s journey from sin to divine union.
The author made a conscious choice to write this poem in Italian language to make it accessible to common people, as the Latin was the language of the elite and the Church. By picking the language, Dante also makes a point about the soul’s salvation without the Institution.
About the poet: Visualizing Dante
Dante Alighieri was born in Florence around 1265 to a family of minor nobility (the Alighieri). The family claimed ancient Roman roots, descending from a branch of the Elisei family. His father, Alighiero II, and grandfather were involved in moneylending. Dante’s mother died when he was a young child. He had a brother (Francesco) and a sister (Tana/Gaetana) from his father’s second marriage. He was baptized in the Baptistery of San Giovanni in Florence, a place that held deep symbolic meaning for him as representative of his beloved city. Dante received early education in grammar, rhetoric, and Latin classics. He studied under the influential Guelph intellectual Brunetto Latini, who introduced him to French culture, philosophy, and civic humanism. This education, combined with the flourishing of vernacular poetry in Tuscany (including the Sicilian School and dolce stil nuovo), shaped his poetic voice. He distinguished himself with poems in praise of Beatrice (his idealized love), later collected and explained in La Vita Nuova.
Dante actively participated in Florence’s turbulent politics during the Guelph-Ghibelline conflicts and the later split between White and Black Guelphs. He fought in the Battle of Campaldino (1289) against the Ghibellines of Arezzo. He enrolled in the Guild of Physicians and Apothecaries to qualify for office under the Ordinances of Justice. He served as a prior (one of the highest offices) in 1300 and acted as ambassador to San Gimignano.
As a White Guelph who opposed Pope Boniface VIII’s interference in Florentine affairs, Dante was sent on an embassy to Rome in late 1301. While he was away, Charles of Valois entered Florence, enabling the Black Guelphs to seize power. In 1302, Dante was accused of corruption, fined, and sentenced to exile. When he did not pay the fine, the sentence was escalated to death. He never returned to Florence.
Life in Exile (1302–1321)
Dante initially joined other White Guelph exiles in attempts to regain power militarily, but after their defeat (e.g., at Lastra a Signa in 1304), he distanced himself (“formed a party of one”). He wandered through Italian cities, including: Bologna, Verona, Lucca, Casentino, Sarzana. He placed great hope in Emperor Henry VII’s descent into Italy (around 1310–1313) as a way to restore order and possibly return home, writing political letters and the treatise De Monarchia. After Henry’s death in 1313, those hopes ended. Later, he stayed with Cangrande della Scala in Verona and finally found a peaceful refuge in Ravenna under Guido Novello da Polenta. He completed The Divine Comedy there. Sent as an ambassador to Venice, he contracted malaria on the return journey. Dante died in Ravenna during the night of 13–14 September 1321, shortly after finishing Paradiso. He left behind his masterpiece, The Divine Comedy (which later generations called “Divine”), along with other major works in both vernacular and Latin. His exile profoundly shaped his writing, blending personal loss, political critique, moral vision, and spiritual hope.
Dante Alighieri: Biography Summary is based on the official Museo Casa di Dante page https://www.museocasadidante.it/en/dante-alighieri/biography )
Artist: Cornelis Galle I (Netherlandish, Antwerp 1576–1650 Antwerp), 1595, Engraving, size: 10 5/8 x 7 7/8 in. (27 x 20 cm).
Engraving celebrating Dante. The central roundel includes a large portrait of the poet. A smaller roundel above includes a portrait of Beatrice and a smaller roundel below represents a double portrait of Virgil and Statius. Portraits surrounded by four diagrams in each corner representing Paradise, the Heavens, Jerusalem with Limbo and Hell as well as the Terrestrial Paradise. The inscription at the base of the image boasts of Dante’s Florentine origins and his work and dedicates the image to Luigi Alamanni.
The Divine Comedy: Literary Symbolism
The poem is divided into three sections: Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso. The narrator and protagonist, Dante, begins his journey lost in the dark woods of sin on Good Friday in 1300, possibly representing a mid-life spiritual crisis.
1. Dante Inferno (Hell)
Guided by the Roman poet Virgil, Dante descends through nine concentric circles of suffering. Hell is a descending cone of increasing wickedness toward the center of the Earth. It is divided into 10 levels: the Ante-Inferno and nine circles of hell. After the first six circles, the seventh is divided into three sub-circles or rounds, the eighth into ten pits, and the ninth into four levels- Caina, Antenora, Ptolomea, and Judecca.
The structure of Hell is governed by the concept of contrapasso, a system where the punishment of a sinner reflects their sin during their life. Dante describes each circle’s environment with its monsters (the infernal hurricane, the eternal rain, Fortune and her wheel, Styx, the gates and city of Dis, etc.), why people get there, and how they get punished for their sins. Sins are categorized broadly as incontinence (lack of self-control), violence, and fraud/malice. The descent symbolizes moving farther from God.
- Upper Hell: Reserved for sins of incontinence (lust, gluttony, greed).
- Lower Hell: Contains more “human” sins such as heresy, violence, treachery, and fraud.
- The Bottom: In the frozen lake of Cocytus, Dante finds Satan—a three-faced monster—chewing on the world’s greatest traitors: Judas Iscariot, Brutus, and Cassius.
- The First Circle—Limbo, or the border land of the unbaptized people (who got there before the birth of Christ)
Hell Symbolism
- Ante-Inferno (or Vestibule): The indifferent or neutral souls who took no sides in life (e.g., those who lived without praise or blame).
- Symbolism: Cowardice and moral neutrality; they chase a banner while being stung by insects, representing their futile, restless existence.
- Circle 1: Limbo — Virtuous pagans and unbaptized souls (e.g., Homer, Socrates, Aristotle).
- Symbolism: Lack of Christian revelation or baptism; a place of natural reason and mild longing, without torment but without the beatific vision.
- Circle 2: Lust — Carnal sinners (e.g., Cleopatra, Helen, Paris).
- Symbolism: Uncontrolled passion; souls are tossed eternally by stormy winds, mirroring how lust swept them away in life.
- Circle 3: Gluttony — Gluttons and those excessive in consumption.
- Symbolism: Self-indulgence; souls lie in vile slush under freezing rain and are torn by Cerberus, reflecting their wallowing in earthly excesses.
- Circle 4: Greed (Avarice/Prodigality) — Hoarders and wasters.
- Symbolism: Misuse of material goods; souls push heavy weights against each other in endless conflict, showing the futility of greed.
- Circle 5: Wrath (and Sullenness) — The wrathful and the sullen.
- Symbolism: Uncontrolled anger or repressed resentment; wrathful fight in the muddy Styx, while the sullen gurgle beneath it.
- Circle 6: Heresy — Heretics and those who deny the soul’s immortality.
- Symbolism: Intellectual/spiritual falsehood; souls are trapped in burning tombs.
- Circle 7: Violence (divided into three rings) — Against others (tyrants in boiling blood), against self (suicides as twisted trees), and against God/nature/art (blasphemers, sodomites, usurers in a desert of burning sand/flames).
- Symbolism: Harm to neighbor, self, or divine order.
Canto XVII Geryon—The violent against art—Usurers—Descent into the abyss of Malebolge.
“Behold the monster with the pointed tail,
Who cleaves the hills, and breaketh walls and weapons,
Behold him who infecteth all the world.”
Thus unto me my Guide began to say,
And beckoned him that he should come to shore,
Near to the confine of the trodden marble;
And that uncleanly image of deceit
Came up and thrust ashore its head and bust,
But on the border did not drag its tail.
The face was as the face of a just man,
Its semblance outwardly was so benign,
And of a serpent all the trunk beside.
Two paws it had, hairy unto the armpits;
The back, and breast, and both the sides it had
Depicted o’er with nooses and with shields.
With colors more, groundwork or broidery
Never in cloth did Tartars make nor Turks,
Nor were such tissues by Arachne laid.
As sometimes wherries lie upon the shore,
That part are in the water, part on land;"
- Circle 8: Fraud — 10 bolgias (ditches) for various frauds (e.g., panderers, flatterers, simoniacs, sorcerers, barrators, hypocrites, thieves, false counselors, schismatics, falsifiers).
- Symbolism: Deception and betrayal of trust; complex, inventive punishments fitting each deceit.
- Circle 9: Treachery (divided into 4 rounds: Caina, Antenora, Ptolomaea, Judecca) — Traitors to family, country, guests, and lords/benefactors.
- Symbolism: Ultimate betrayal of trust and love; frozen in ice (Cocytus), with Satan at the center chewing the worst traitors – Judas, Brutus, and Cassius. Represents the coldest, most isolated sin.
"Underneath each came forth two mighty wings,
Such as befitting were so great a bird;
Sails of the sea I never saw so large.
No feathers had they, but as of a bat
Their fashion was; and he was waving them,
So that three winds proceeded forth therefrom.
Thereby Cocytus wholly was congealed.
With six eyes did he weep, and down three chins
Trickled the tear-drops and the bloody drivel.
At every mouth he with his teeth was crunching
A sinner, in the manner of a brake,
So that he three of them tormented thus.
To him in front the biting was as naught
Unto the clawing, for sometimes the spine
Utterly stripped of all the skin remained.
“That soul up there which has the greatest pain,”
The Master said, “is Judas Iscariot;
With head inside, he plies his legs without.
Of the two others, who head downward are,
The one who hangs from the black jowl is Brutus;
See how he writhes himself, and speaks no word.
And the other, who so stalwart seems, is Cassius.
But night is reascending, and ’tis time
That we depart, for we have seen the whole.”
As seemed him good, I clasped him round the neck,
And he the vantage seized of time and place,
And when the wings were opened wide apart,
He laid fast hold upon the shaggy sides;
From fell to fell descended downward then
Between the thick hair and the frozen crust.
When we were come to where the thigh revolves
Exactly on the thickness of the haunch,
The Guide, with labor and with hard-drawn breath,
Turned round his head where he had had his legs,
And grappled to the hair, as one who mounts,
So that to Hell I thought we were returning.
“Keep fast thy hold, for by such stairs as these,”
The Master said, panting as one fatigued,
“Must we perforce depart from so much evil.”
Then through the opening of a rock he issued,
And down upon the margin seated me;
Then tow’rds me he outstretched his wary step.
I lifted up mine eyes and thought to see
Lucifer in the same way I had left him;
And I beheld him upward hold his legs."
2. Dante Purgatorio (Purgatory): Ante-Purgatory + 7 Terraces + Earthly Paradise
Dante and Virgil emerge on the shores of Mount Purgatory that they need to climb to reach Heaven. It is divided into three parts: Ante-Purgatory, Purgatory divided into second terraces, and the Earthly Paradise at the top of the mountain. Unlike the eternal punishments of Hell, Purgatory is a place of hope and purification for repentant souls. It’s an ascending mountain that symbolizes hope and moral growth. Here, they undergo penance for the seven deadly sins to cleanse themselves before ascending to Heaven’s realm. At the summit, Virgil—representing human reason—cannot go further and leaves Dante. However, Dante meets Beatrice, who represents divine revelation and guides him through spheres of Paradise.
https://www.ashmolean.org/collections-online#/item/ash-object-877057
Purgatory Symbolism
- Ante-Purgatory: Late-repentant souls, excommunicated, and those distracted by worldly cares (e.g., princes). Symbolism: Delayed repentance; souls wait and pray.
- Terrace 1: Pride — Souls bent under heavy stones. Symbolism: Humbling of the arrogant; carved examples of humility (e.g., Mary) aid correction.
- Terrace 2: Envy — Souls with sewn-shut eyes, weeping. Symbolism: Blinding oneself to others’ good; examples of generosity.
- Terrace 3: Wrath — Souls in blinding smoke. Symbolism: Obscuring of reason by anger; examples of meekness.
- Terrace 4: Sloth (Acedia) — Souls running zealously. Symbolism: Remedy for spiritual laziness; examples of diligence.
- Terrace 5: Avarice (Greed) — Souls weeping face-down, bound. Symbolism: Attachment to earthly goods; examples of poverty and generosity.
- Terrace 6: Gluttony — Souls emaciated, tormented by unreachable fruit and water. Symbolism: Temperance through hunger; examples of moderation.
- Terrace 7: Lust — Souls in purifying flames. Symbolism: Burning away disordered love; examples of chastity.
- Earthly Paradise (Garden of Eden): At the summit. Symbolism: Restored innocence and original state before the Fall; Dante undergoes final purification (Lethe and Eunoe rivers) and meets Beatrice. It bridges Purgatory and Heaven.
3. Dante Paradiso (Paradise)
In the third part of the Divine Comedy, Paradiso, Dante travels through nine celestial spheres, which are based on the Ptolemaic (earth-centered) model of the universe, each associated with a different virtue and planetary body (like the Moon, Mars, Mercury). Heaven represents the soul’s ascent toward God through increasing light, love, and understanding. Souls appear in different spheres according to their capacity, but all enjoy the beauty of paradise.
The journey culminates in a tenth, non-physical realm, in the Empyrean, where Dante experiences a fleeting, transcendent vision of God as three blinding circles of light, signifying the Holy Trinity. Beatrice replaces Virgil in this realm. Beatrice appears before Dante and Virgil. Unlike the Inferno, where souls are trapped in specific circles due to their sins, the souls in Paradiso all reside in the presence of God but appear to Dante in different spheres to help him understand their varying degrees of bliss.
Heaven Symbolism:
- Sphere 1: Moon — Inconstant souls (e.g., those who broke vows). Symbolism: Inconstancy and imperfection; Those who were virtuous but failed to keep their sacred vows (often due to outside pressure). The Moon’s changing phases and faint light represent their lack of steadfastness.
- Sphere 2: Mercury — Ambitious souls who sought fame/honor. Symbolism: Active but somewhat self-interested virtue. Those who performed great and virtuous deeds primarily to gain earthly fame and honor. Mercury is small and often hidden by the sun’s rays, much like their personal glory is now absorbed into God’s.
- Sphere 3: Venus — Loving souls (lovers, those with excessive but redeemed affection). Those whose virtue was fueled by love, though it was sometimes misdirected toward earthly passion before being purified. Symbolism: Human love as a reflection of divine love. Venus is the planet of love, now transformed into divine affection.
- Sphere 4: Sun — Wise souls, philosophers, scholars, and theologians (e.g., Thomas Aquinas, king Solomon). Symbolism: Intellectual light and prudence/wisdom. The Sun represents the light of intellectual and spiritual wisdom.
- Sphere 5: Mars — Warriors, crusaders, and martyrs who fought for faith. Symbolism: Fortitude and courage in defense of the good. The planet appears red, and the souls form a giant, glowing cross.
- Sphere 6: Jupiter — Leaders who administered justice with wisdom (e.g., King David and Constantine). Souls of justice. Symbolism: Justice and righteous governance (eagle formation). The souls arrange themselves to form the shape of a giant eagle, the symbol of Roman imperial justice.
- Sphere 7: Saturn — Contemplative souls and mystics. Monks and hermits who dedicated their lives to prayer and meditation (e.g., Saint Benedict). Symbolism: Temperance and divine contemplation. A golden ladder reaches upward, symbolizing the soul’s ascent through contemplation.
- Sphere 8: Fixed Stars — The Triumphant Church. The Apostles and the Virgin Mary. Here, Dante is examined on the three theological virtues: Faith, Hope, and Love.. Symbolism: Theological virtues and the Church triumphant. A realm of pure light and celestial song representing the victory of Christ.
- Sphere 9: Primum Mobile — This is the physical boundary of the universe. It moves all other spheres and is moved directly by God.. Symbolism: The swiftest sphere imparting movement to the cosmos; angelic hierarchies. Dante sees nine rings of fire whirling around a point of intense light, representing the nine hierarchies of angels.
- Empyrean: The highest heaven, outside space and time; the abode of God or the “True Home” of God, the angels, and all the redeemed. Symbolism: Direct presence of God (the “love that moves the sun and other stars”); the rose of the blessed. Dante experiences the Beatific Vision here: The souls form a massive White Rose. The poem ends with Dante’s direct vision of the Holy Trinity as three distinct circles of light.
"Within the deep and luminous subsistence
Of the High Light appeared to me three circles,
Of threefold color and of one dimension,
And by the second seemed the first reflected
As Iris is by Iris, and the third
Seemed fire that equally from both is breathed.
O how all speech is feeble and falls short
Of my conceit, and this to what I saw
Is such, ’tis not enough to call it little!
O Light Eterne, sole in thyself that dwellest,
Sole knowest thyself, and, known unto thyself
And knowing, lovest and smilest on thyself!
That circulation, which being thus conceived
Appeared in thee as a reflected light,
When somewhat contemplated by mine eyes,
Within itself, of its own very color
Seemed to me painted with our effigy,
Wherefore my sight was all absorbed therein.
As the geometrician, who endeavors
To square the circle, and discovers not,
By taking thought, the principle he wants,
Even such was I at that new apparition;
I wished to see how the image to the circle
Conformed itself, and how it there finds place;
But my own wings were not enough for this,
Had it not been that then my mind there smote
A flash of lightning, wherein came its wish.
Here vigor failed the lofty fantasy:
But now was turning my desire and will,
Even as a wheel that equally is moved,
The Love which moves the sun and the other stars."
Art Illustrating the Spheres of the Divine Comedy
The structure of Dante’s Heaven is deeply tied to medieval astronomy and theology. The Museo Galileo (Florence): This museum holds astronomical instruments from Dante’s era, helping visitors visualize how the Ptolemaic spheres were understood as physical realities in the 1300s. https://www.museogalileo.it/en/galileo.html .
The British Library holds the Yates Thompson 36 manuscript, which contains 110 miniatures by Giovanni di Paolo (c. 1444). These are considered some of the finest depictions of the Paradiso ever created. https://searcharchives.bl.uk/catalog/040-002354967 https://www.facsimilefinder.com/facsimiles/divine-comedy-yates-thompson-manuscript-facsimile
Gustave Doré, The Celestial Rose: A famous engraving showing the Empyrean as a vast, light-filled amphitheater of souls. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Paradiso_Canto_31.jpg and Sandro Botticelli, The Nine Skies of Paradise: Sketches that emphasize the circular, harmonious nature of Heaven compared to the jagged depths of his Inferno maps. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_Comedy_Illustrated_by_Botticelli
https://www.ashmolean.org/collections-online#/item/ash-object-877080
Visualizing the Divine Comedy in Art
The Divine Comedy has inspired centuries of visual art, with major collections held in institutions like the Vatican, the British Museum, and the Louvre.
Renaissance Era:
- Sandro Botticelli (mid-1480s–mid-1490s): A series of full-page drawings (mostly silverpoint on parchment, a few colored) illustrating nearly every canto. Commissioned for a lavish manuscript by the Medici; considered masterpieces of Renaissance draftsmanship. Includes the famous Map of Hell (a detailed conical diagram of Inferno). Many are housed in the Kupferstichkabinett, Berlin, and the Vatican. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_Comedy_Illustrated_by_Botticelli
- Domenico di Michelino (1465): La Divina Commedia di Dante — A large fresco in Florence Cathedral showing Dante standing outside the city with the three realms of the afterlife depicted around him (Hell, Purgatory mountain, and celestial spheres). https://duomo.firenze.it/en/discover/cathedral/9143/domenico-di-michelino-dante-firenze-e-la-divina-commedia
- Luca Signorelli, The Damned Cast into Hell (1499–1504): Located in the Orvieto Cathedral, these frescoes were heavily influenced by Dante’s descriptions of physical suffering and the psychological weight of sin.
- Giovanni di Paolo, Paradiso Illuminations (1440s): For a stark contrast to the darkness of the Inferno, these 15th-century manuscript illuminations (now held at the British Library) use ethereal blues and golds to depict Dante and Beatrice moving through the celestial spheres.
18th–19th Century Romantics:
- William Blake (1824–1827): 102 watercolor drawings and sketches (with 7 engravings completed). Blake created these in his final years, blending his mystical style with Dante’s visions. Notable examples include The Circle of the Lustful: Paolo and Francesca and scenes of thieves attacked by serpents. Housed in collections like the Tate and others.
- Gustave Doré (1861–1868): over 100 dramatic, black-and-white engravings, the most extensive and widely reproduced series that are my favorite besides the painting by Bouguereau. Dore illustrated every canto with the dark, atmospheric Inferno plates (e.g., Satan in the ice of Cocytus, Paolo and Francesca in the storm), and lighter Purgatorio and Paradiso.
- Auguste Rodin, The Gates of Hell. A massive bronze sculptural group (over 6 meters tall) featuring figures like The Thinker (Dante) and The Kiss. Housed at the Rodin Museum.
- Eugène Delacroix, The Barque of Dante (1822): This painting, currently in the Louvre Museum, depicts Dante and Virgil crossing the river Styx while the damned souls cling to their boat. It is a landmark of the Romantic movement, emphasizing movement and raw emotion.
- Ary Scheffer, Dante and Beatrice (1851): While many artists focused on the horrors of Hell, Scheffer’s work (found in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) captures the more spiritual and serene relationship between the poet and his muse in the higher realms.
- Pre-Raphaelites: Dante Rossetti painted several images on the theme.
- Raffaele Giannetti (1837–1915), First meeting of Dante and Beatrice, 1877 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Raffaele_Giannetti_-_First_meeting_of_Dante_and_Beatrice.jpg
More Art
- John Flaxman (early 19th century): Neoclassical line drawings/engravings for a popular edition, influential for their simplicity and clarity. See every page here: https://archive.org/details/McGillLibrary-rbsc_la-divina-comedia_dante_folioPQ4329F551802-20446/page/18/mode/2up
- Bartolomeo Pinelli (early 19th century): 145 prints offering a detailed, dramatic interpretation.
- Stradanus (Jan van der Straet) (1587–1588): Sepia-toned prints of scenes from the poem.
- William Dyce, Dante And Beatrice, oil painting
- Eyre Crowe, The meeting of Dante and Beatrice (La Vita Nuova), oil painting
- Ruggero Focardi, Dante e Beatrice nel Paradiso Terrestre, oil painting
- Odilon Redon, Dante et Béatrice, watercolor, Uehara Museum of Art
20th Century:
- Salvador Dalí (1951–1963): 100 watercolor illustrations (later turned into prints/wood engravings). A surrealist take commissioned to mark the 700th anniversary of Dante’s birth. Covers all three realms with Dalí’s dreamlike style.
- Bellagio, Lake Como – statue of Dante and Beatrice
Many other artists have created individual paintings or smaller series.
Museums and Historical Collections:
If you want to see the “historic accounts” in person, these institutions hold the primary evidence:
- The Dante House Museum (Museo Casa di Dante), Florence: Located in what is believed to be the district where he lived, this museum houses documents regarding his political life and the legal papers of his exile. https://www.museocasadidante.it/en/
- The Laurentian Library, Florence: Contains some of the earliest and most beautiful manuscripts of the poem, showing how the “story” was physically distributed before the printing press.
- The Classense Library, Ravenna: This city is where Dante finished the Paradiso and where he is buried. They hold significant historical records of his final years and his interactions with the local nobility that allowed him to finish his masterpiece.
- Free ebook: https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/dante-alighieri/the-divine-comedy/henry-wadsworth-longfellow
The Divine Comedy: Dante
In the Divine Comedy, Dante is both the author and the protagonist. This dual identity creates a unique narrative where the character experiencing the journey is also the poet reflecting on it years later.
1. The Protagonist
At the start of the poem, Dante presents himself as a lost soul. He is not a hero of mythic proportions but an ordinary man who has gone astray. The poem begins in the middle of things. Dante doesn’t enter the afterlife through a traditional “gate of death.” Instead, he wakes up in a “Dark Wood”, having lost the “straight path” of righteousness.
- The Mid-life Crisis: He begins the poem with the famous line, “Midway upon the journey of our life,” placing him at age 35 (based on the biblical lifespan of 70).
- The Pilgrim: Throughout the journey, he is referred to as “The Pilgrim.” He reacts to the afterlife with very human emotions: he faints from pity in Hell, trembles in fear, and feels immense joy in Paradise.
- The Learner: His character arc is one of spiritual education. At first, he is often too sympathetic toward sinners, and Virgil must scold him, teaching him that divine justice is perfect and that he must align his will with God’s.
How the Souls Know He is Alive
The fact that Dante is a living man in a realm of spirits creates several dramatic moments throughout the poem:
- The Shadow: In Purgatorio, the souls are shocked because Dante casts a shadow. Since the spirits are made of “aerial bodies,” the sun passes right through them, but Dante’s physical body blocks the light.
- The Weight: When Dante climbs into Charon’s boat to cross the river Acheron, or when he is carried by the giant Antaeus, the poem notes that the vessels or arms sink under his weight. The spirits, being weightless, don’t move things the way he does.
- His Breath: Souls in the Inferno notice he is breathing, which is a sign of life that immediately draws their attention (and often their envy or anger).
2. The Political Exile
Dante wrote the poem while in actual, physical exile from his home city of Florence. This real-world trauma heavily colors his character in the poem.
- The Prophecies: Since the poem is set in 1300 but written years later, the “character” Dante hears many “prophecies” from souls in the afterlife about his upcoming exile and the political corruption of Florence.
- The Judgment: By placing real-life political enemies—including Popes and Florentine leaders—in Hell, the character of Dante acts as a moral judge, using the poem to find the justice he was denied in his own life.
3. The Lover (The Connection to Beatrice)
Dante’s primary motivation for the journey is his love for Beatrice.
- In the poem, Beatrice (a woman Dante loved in real life who died young) looks down from Heaven, sees Dante lost in the “dark wood” of sin, and sends Virgil to rescue him. As he tries to climb a sunlit mountain, he is blocked by three beasts (a leopard, a lion, and a she-wolf). From Heaven, Beatrice sees his distress and asks the Virgin Mary and Saint Lucia for help. They authorize Virgil to descend from Limbo to find Dante.
- His identity is defined by this “Courtly Love” transformed into divine devotion; he endures the horrors of Hell specifically so he can eventually see her again in Paradise.
Symbolic Meaning of “Dante”
Unlike the shades (ghosts) he meets, Dante has a physical body that casts a shadow and makes the ground move, symbolizing that he still has the “weight” of mortal life and the opportunity to change.
The Permission: Virgil explains to Dante—and later to the various demons and guardians of Hell—that Dante’s journey is willed by God. He is being granted a rare, “special grace” to see the afterlife while still in his mortal body so that he can return to Earth and warn others.
He represents the Human Soul. His journey from the depths of Hell to the heights of Heaven symbolizes the potential for any person to achieve salvation through self-reflection and grace.
As a poet, he is the “vessel” for the story. By the end of the poem, he is charged by the saints to return to Earth and write down everything he saw to help others.
How and why Dante came up with the story
Historians and literary scholars point to a perfect storm of personal tragedy, political bitterness, and medieval philosophy that forced the Divine Comedy into existence. The story was forged through several events including his exile in 1302, and the popularity of vision literature (heaven and hell).
The most direct historic “account” of why he wrote this story is his own political downfall. Dante was a high-ranking politician in Florence. When a rival faction (the Black Guelphs) took power, he was falsely accused of corruption, fined, and sentenced to be burned at the stake if he ever returned. He spent the rest of his life wandering from city to city. Scholars believe the Divine Comedy was his way of “reconstructing” the world he lost. By creating an afterlife where he was the judge, he could punish those who had betrayed him and find a higher sense of justice that the earthly courts had denied him.
There is a famous historical document called the “Letter to Cangrande della Scala” (Dante’s patron in Verona). In this letter, Dante explains his own intent: He states the poem is meant to “remove those living in this life from a state of misery, and to lead them to a state of happiness.” He confirms that the story should be read on four levels: literal, allegorical, moral, and anagogical (spiritual).
Dante Depictions in Art
Dante is almost always depicted in art wearing a red robe and a laurel wreath (the symbol of a master poet). In the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence, you can see the “Cenotaph of Dante.” While his physical remains are actually in Ravenna (due to his exile), Florence treats him as a perpetual “living” presence through their monuments.
- Raphael, The Parnassus (1511): Located in the Vatican Museums, this fresco shows Dante among the greatest poets of history.
- The “Dante Mask”: Several museums, including the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence, display what was long thought to be Dante’s death mask, though it is now considered a 15th-century commemorative sculpture. It captures the hooked nose and somber expression that have become his definitive look.
- Dante Gabriel Rossetti, The First Anniversary of the Death of Beatrice: This painting illustrates the “historic” grief that eventually led to the Divine Comedy. View at the Ashmolean Museum.
- Federico Zuccari, Dante in the Dark Wood: Part of a rare collection at the Uffizi Gallery, these drawings show the poet in his study, bridging the gap between his historical reality and his fictional journey.
- William Blake, Dante Running from the Three Beasts: This watercolor captures the moment a living, terrified Dante realizes he is lost. View at the Tate Modern.
- Gustave Doré, The Dark Wood: One of the most famous illustrations, showing a physical Dante looking small and vulnerable among giant, gnarled trees. https://rmc.library.cornell.edu/visionsofdante/art_dore.php
- Filippino Lippi, Allegory: Various Renaissance depictions often show Dante holding a book, bridging the gap between the “Living Poet” and the “Divine Journey.”
- Dante by Dali: https://rmc.library.cornell.edu/visionsofdante/art_dali.php
- Dante gazes at Mount Purgatory in an allegorical portrait by Agnolo Bronzino, painted c. 1530, Gallery of Art, Washington DC
The Divine Comedy: Virgil
Virgil (70–19 BCE) was a classical Roman poet, widely considered one of the greatest writers in Western history. While he is a central character in Dante’s Divine Comedy, he was a real historical figure who lived more than 1,300 years before Dante. Born Publius Vergilius Maro near Mantua, Italy, Virgil lived during a period of intense political upheaval as the Roman Republic transitioned into the Roman Empire.
His most famous work is an epic poem commissioned by the first Roman Emperor, Augustus. It tells the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero who traveled to Italy and became the ancestor of the Romans. The poem was designed to provide Rome with a grand national origin story and to legitimize Augustus’s rule.
During the Middle Ages, Virgil was viewed with almost mystical reverence. Many Christians believed his Fourth Eclogue—which foretold the birth of a child who would bring a new Golden Age—was a pagan prophecy of the birth of Jesus Christ. This “Christianizing” of Virgil made him an acceptable and beloved figure for medieval writers like Dante.
Virgil’s Role in the Divine Comedy
In the poem, Virgil serves as Dante’s guide through Inferno and Purgatorio and a protector. Dante’s choice to use him was purposeful and symbolic:
- The Voice of Reason: Allegorically, Virgil represents human reason and classical wisdom. He can guide Dante through Hell and Purgatory because reason can recognize sin and the need for repentance.
- The Mentor: Dante refers to him as “Master” and “Author,” crediting Virgil’s poetry as the primary influence on his own writing style.
- The Limitation of Reason: Because Virgil was born before Christ and never knew “the true way,” he cannot enter Heaven. He represents the highest level of achievement possible for a human without divine grace (faith).
- The Farewell: At the summit of Mount Purgatory, Virgil must disappear. He is replaced by Beatrice, who represents Divine Revelation/Theology, as reason alone is insufficient to comprehend the mysteries of Paradise.
To the real-life Dante, Virgil was the “Prince of Poets.” Dante’s primary historical goal was to prove that the Italian language of the common people could be just as noble as Latin. When Virgil eventually disappears at the end of Purgatorio, Dante weeps. It is one of the most heartbreaking moments in literature because it signifies the moment where “thinking” is no longer enough, and “feeling/believing” must take over. The “second meaning” (or allegorical layer) of Virgil is that he represents Human Reason. In the medieval worldview, God granted humans “Natural Reason” to understand the world, ethics, and justice even without the Bible.
- Why Virgil guides through Hell: Reason is sufficient to understand that sin is destructive. You don’t need a miracle to see that greed or violence leads to misery; you only need a clear mind.
- Why Virgil guides through Purgatory: Reason can help a person discipline themselves and build better habits (virtue).
- The “Tragedy of Virgil”: The most profound second meaning is that Virgil represents the limitation of the human mind. He can lead Dante to the edge of Heaven, but he cannot enter. This symbolizes the belief that while science, philosophy, and logic are great, they cannot bridge the final gap to the “Divine”—that requires Faith (represented by Beatrice).
There is a fascinating historical “second meaning” to Virgil known as the Messianic Eclogue. In his real-life Fourth Eclogue, Virgil wrote about a “child” who would be born to bring peace to the world. Medieval Christians (including Dante) believed Virgil had accidentally prophesied the birth of Jesus. Because of this, Virgil’s role in the poem is that of a “Pagan Prophet”—a man who held the light up for others to see the way, even though he remained in the dark himself.
Virgil’s depictions in Art
- https://www.ashmolean.org/collections-online#/search/simple-search/virgil/%257B%257D/4/16/_score/desc/catalogue
- William Blake, Virgil Rescuing Dante from the Three Beasts in Tate Britain https://www.tate.org.uk/. Shows Reason (Virgil) physically pulling the Human Soul (Dante) away from the animal instincts of the “beasts.”
- Raphael, The School of Athens in the Vatican Museums. the placement of classical figures near Dante in the Parnassus nearby emphasizes Virgil as the peak of human logic.
- Gustave Doré, Virgil and Dante looking into the Geryon Abyss. Virgil is always shown standing taller and more composed, symbolizing the steady nature of Reason in the face of chaos.
The Divine Comedy: Beatrice
Long before he wrote the Comedy, Dante wrote La Vita Nuova (The New Life), a collection of poems about his unrequited love for Beatrice Portinari. When she died young (around 1290?), Dante was devastated. At the end of La Vita Nuova, he promised he would one day write of her “what hath never been written of any woman.” The Divine Comedy is the fulfillment of that promise. He “invented” the journey through Hell and Purgatory essentially as a massive narrative bridge to reach the Beatrice he had lost. So Beatrice represents everlasting Love as she is priestess of love and angel of salvation.
In Gustave Doré’s wood engravings for Purgatorio (Canto 30 and 31 located at Cornell University Library)
Beatrice chastises him for having loved others after her death. In Canto 31, she offers Dante forgiveness through a second baptism, plunging him in the waters of Lethe (λήθη = the river in Greek mythology whose name means “oblivion.”)
Why the Divine Comedy is a masterpiece
Here is why I find the Divine Comedy a masterpiece. Dante’s writing is highly symbolic and visionary: the journey mirrors the soul’s moral and spiritual progress, with Virgil representing reason (limited to lower realms), Beatrice divine grace/theology, and numerical/symbolic structures (3 for Trinity, 7 for sins/virtues) tying into Christian theology and medieval cosmology.
The Divine comedy has profound meaning. We-humans have freewill to live and create life we want to inhabit. We are not machines or creatures with pre-determined fate. While it’s easy to engage in treachery and fraud, to steal or betray, it takes effort to imagine, build, nurture, and create life that expands our universe. Some people choose to end up in the circles of Hell, while others make a decision to aspire to a better life via love and devotion.
The Divine Comedy emphasizes the divine spark inside our souls. Dante walks in the heavenly realms with Beatrice, his love. The realms emphasize justice, freewill, love (perverted in Hell, purified in Purgatory, perfected in Heaven), and the ultimate goal of union with the divine. We save ourselves by love through giving, and that’s how we reach the heavens. Sometimes we get lost in problems and difficulties spiraling to the circles of hell inside us, but it’s Love that gives our life meaning and return to God.
Explanation by the Predictive History:
I find this poem difficult to comprehend due to ancient language in translation. I think Professor Jiang from “Predictive History” gives a personal explanation of this poem. You can watch one of his lectures here:
Art books from the artist:
What is Sfumato oil painting technique?
What is Sfumato?
Sfumato is an oil painting technique that involves softening the transitions between colors, tones and outlines to create a subtle, soft or blurred effect, often described as “smoky” or “hazy”. The purpose is to eliminate the contour line describing the form and set it in natural atmosphere. Sfumato translates ‘shaded’ or ‘vanished’. Derived from the Italian word “sfumare,” meaning “to tone down” or “to evaporate like smoke,” it produces imperceptible gradations without harsh lines or tones, mimicking the way the human eye perceives out-of-focus areas or atmospheric haze. This method is achieved by applying multiple thin layers of glaze or a mix of light color with white, and blending with fingers, brushes, or rags, resulting in a dreamy, realistic quality, especially in rendering facial features, skin tones, and dreamy landscape backgrounds.
History of Sfumato
Sfumato emerged as one of realistic oil painting techniques during the Italian Renaissance in the 15th and 16th centuries, marking a shift from the earlier use of linework in art to more naturalistic, blended edges. The first, definite use of sfumato technique is attributed to Leonardo da Vinci who perfected and popularized the technique, drawing from his studies in optics, human vision, and the camera obscura. Da Vinci described it as blending colors “in the manner of smoke,” and it became a hallmark of High Renaissance art for creating illusionistic effects and atmospheric depth in landscapes. The technique influenced later periods, including Baroque art, where it enhanced realism.
Leonardo da Vinci used sfumato extensively in paintings like the Mona Lisa (1503), where the soft blending around the face and landscape creates an enigmatic atmosphere, and Virgin of the Rocks (1483–1486), blending figures seamlessly with their surroundings.
A Venetian painter, Giorgione incorporated sfumato in brooding, atmospheric scenes, such as The Tempest (c. 1508), where figures and landscapes merge with hazy transitions
Correggio is famous for his dramatic use of sfumato in illusionistic frescoes and altarpieces, like The Assumption of the Virgin (1526–1530), where soft shading creates a sense of movement and depth. Jupiter and Io, oil on canvas by Correggio, c. 1530; in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
Art books from the artist:
From Venice to Boston: The TRUE Story of America’s Craziest Art Collection & the Thieves Who Stole It
Dedicated to the enjoyment of the public from the very beginning, this palace was never Isabella’s house. Rather, it is a Venetian-style palace filled with art, history, and beauty that reflects her rt collecting aesthetic and taste. The house-museum is the world of Isabella Stewart Gardner, the fiery socialite and adventurous spirit who turned her passion for beauty into one of America’s most audacious art collections. This museum experienced the largest art theft in history, 13 artworks were stolen. A crime so brazen it left empty frames mocking visitors to this day. Welcome inside the powerful, enigmatic realm of Isabella Gardner—a tale of creative vision, tragedy, and treasures still missing.
To read about the Isabella Stewart Gardner’s Palace in Boston, Massachusetts and to see pictures: https://veronicasart.com/the-queens-hidden-palace-isabella-stewart-gardners-boston-legacy-of-art-intrigue-and-the-greatest-heist-ever/
video: https://youtu.be/69qpQMk5eVw
If you’d like to support my work, subscribe & rate this podcast on Spotify and Apple | Show your support for the podcast: here | Host: Veronica Winters, MFA | veronicasart.com
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The Queen’s Hidden Palace: Isabella Stewart Gardner’s Boston Legacy of Art, Intrigue, and the Greatest Heist Ever
From Venice to Boston: The TRUE Story of America’s Craziest Art Collection & the Thieves Who Stole It
Imagine stepping into a stunning Venetian palace hidden in the heart of Boston—not a stuffy museum with white walls and random contemporary art, but a living, breathing dreamscape filled with Renaissance masterpieces, exotic sculptures, famous art, and the whispers of scandalous parties attended by the era’s greatest minds. This is the world of Isabella Stewart Gardner, the fiery socialite and adventurous spirit who turned her passion for beauty into one of America’s most audacious art collections. The house is her magical creation. But beneath the glamour lies a shadow: the largest art theft in history, a crime so brazen it left empty frames mocking visitors to this day. Welcome inside the powerful, enigmatic realm of Isabella Gardner—a tale of creative vision, tragedy, and treasures still missing.
Dedicated to the enjoyment of the public from the very beginning, this palace was never Isabella’s house. Rather, it is a Venetian-style palace filled with art, history, and beauty that reflects her aesthetic and taste. The courtyard alone is a stunning floral masterpiece!
Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum History and Life: stunning art collection inside
Born in 1840 to a wealthy New York family of linen merchants, Isabella Stewart was no shrinking violet. Nicknamed “Belle,” she was sharp-witted, fiercely independent, and destined to shake up Boston’s buttoned-up elite. She grew up in Manhattan and lived in Paris and Italy in her teenage years, studying art, languages, religion, and music. At 20, she married John “Jack” Gardner, heir to a shipping fortune, in a union that blended New York flair with Boston restraint. They settled into a grand townhouse on Beacon Street, but joy turned to heartbreak when their only child, little Jackie, died at 18 months from pneumonia in 1867. Isabella had multiple miscarriages and a stillbirth. After such brutal beginnings, Isabella experienced severe depression. Devastated, the Gardners escaped into the world, embarking on grand tours of Europe (Scandinavia, Russia, Paris, etc) and the Middle East ( Northern India, Syria, and Egypt). Venice became their obsession—the city’s labyrinthine canals and opulent palazzos igniting Isabella’s passion for the arts.
“Venice is like eating an entire box of chocolate liqueurs at one go,” she once quipped.
These artful journeys of an entire decade were awakenings to her true passion. Art. Isabella devoured art history, studied Italian literature at Harvard—unheard of for a woman then—and began amassing rare books, her first foray into art collecting. In 1875, her husband’s brother died, and Jack and Isabella adopted three boys.
Where did Isabella’s wealth come from?
Isabella’s wealth came from her father, who imported textiles from Europe to the US at first, and then he made investments in railroads and mines, accumulating a fortune that he gave to his daughter at 51 after his passing. According to Diana Greenwald, Curator of the Collection at the Gardner, Isabella inherits the equivalent of about seventy-eight million dollars in today’s money. She and her husband, Jack, jointly decide that they are going to live off of Jack’s money, which also comes from family inheritance and investments. And they will spend her money on art.
When you walk into the Gothic Room, you’ll see a vertical painting in the corner, depicting Isabella Stewart Gardner in a simple black dress set against red-orange Italian textile. Painted by a famous artist in her day, John Singer Sargent, the woman is 47 in this oil painting. Sargent was known for painting large portraits of high-society men and women in loose, fresh, and fluid brushstrokes. In this one, he designs the painting in circles: the halo above her head, the circle of pearls on her waistline, and a circle of her interlocking hands. She stands tall, facing us with confidence. It was a scandalous portrait among Bostonian high society at her time.
Isabella Gardner art collection & Bernard Berenson
By the 1880s, Isabella’s tastes evolved from manuscripts to canvases. She met Bernard Berenson, the charismatic Harvard art connoisseur of Italian Renaissance art who became her lifelong advisor and confidant. Together, from the 1890s onward, they scoured Europe for gems, outbidding rivals in smoky auction houses. As she inherited almost 2 million from her father, Isabella began her art collecting journey of European fine art. Isabella’s eye was eclectic and bold: Italian Renaissance masterpieces like Titian’s The Rape of Europa, a stormy seascape by Rembrandt, and delicate Chinese bronzes from ancient dynasties, the Concert by Vermeer (bought at a Paris auction), and delicate Botticelli’s Madonna and Child. She snapped up Impressionist stunners—Manet’s cheeky Chez Tortoni—and even contemporary works by Matisse. No dusty timelines here; her collection spanned 3,000 years across five continents, blending European art with vibrant Persian textiles, silver, manuscripts, ceramics, and architectural pieces. By her death, it numbered over 2,500 objects, a fortune that would rival kings.
Isabella Stewart Gardner Art Collection Highlights (listed in the museum’s brochure):
“A young country is in need of the arts,” Isabella once said.
First Floor: When you walk into the Palace, you have to adjust your eyesight as it seems dark at first, especially in the first floor’ cloisters. Isabella not only designed the rooms and art displays, but also varied the lighting in each room of the house. It’s crowded on the first floor, and some rooms have a line with a 5-10 minute wait time to enter.
- Courtyard: Incredibly beautiful courtyard features the Roman mosaic in its center, depicting Medusa. It also hosts all female Roman statues. A novel glass roof was Isabella’s design. As it doesn’t emit the UV light to protect the art, the flowers must change weekly, and the entire floral arrangements must change every 6 weeks, according to Christina Nielsen, Curator of the Collection. The Venetian-style windows are reminiscent of Venice if they were transported from Italy to the US.
- Spanish Cloister: This is a very dark space that mimics the directional light in the painting El Jaleo by John S. Sargent.
- Chinese Loggia: Chinese Votive Stele
- Yellow Room: Henri Matisse, the Terrace St-Tropez & James Whistler, Harmony in Blue and Silver. Lady in Yellow by Thomas Wilmer Dewing
- Blue Room: this room features Isabella’s personal friendships, including art, bookcases, and cases with objects and letters. Artists such as John S. Sargent, Madame Gautreau, drinking a toast; Anders Zorn, the Omnibus, Eduard Manet, Madame Auguste Manet; John Singer Sargent, A Tent in the Rockies, watercolor; Return from the Lido by Ralph Wormeley Curtis; Incensing the Veil, watercolor by John Singer Sargent;
- Macknight Room: the only room in the Museum to be named after a contemporary artist, this space is dedicated to the watercolor art of Dodge Macknight. This room with small paintings served as an apartment for Isabella Stewart Gardner’s guests in the beginning. John S. Sargent, Mrs. Gardner in White; Diana, bronze sculpture by Paul Manship.
- The Vatichino—the little Vatican is a narrow space located in the adjacent Macknight Room. According to the museum, it originally contained 1,850 objects, including art, pictures, books, Mexican portraits, and souvenirs like a Sudanese dagger purchased in Egypt. The room houses a small portrait of Gardner in fancy dress by Dennis Miller Bunker.
Second Floor: I think the 2nd and 3rd floor has the most beautiful rooms and art reminiscent of beautiful Venice. I felt like I was transported into the past of a prosperous Venetian city-state.
- Early Italian Room: This room has the collection of Italian Gothic and Renaissance paintings by P. della Francesca, Hercules; Fra Angelico, the Dormition and Assumption of the Virgin, etc.
- Raphael Room: One of the most beautiful rooms in the palace is dedicated to Raphael. Decorated in vivid, luxurious red, this opulent room displays paintings by the 15th and 16th-century Italian painters, ancient Roman wall paintings, sculptures, and vases. Two heavy velvet curtains flank the Venetian-style fireplace. Art includes the portrait of Tomasso Inglirami by Raphael; the Annunciation, 1487 by Piermatteo d’Amelia; The Story of Lucretia, 1500 by Sandro Botticelli; Saint George Slaying the Dragon, 1470 by Carlo Crivelli; Virgin and Child,1457 by Francesco Pesellino. The window light bathes an ancient Roman stone bowl with two animals, adding history and glamour to this room.
- Short Gallery: the Short Gallery displays Isabella Stewart Gardner’s collection of prints and old master drawings, old books, textiles, and family portraits. You need to open the panels to see drawings by Michelangelo and Bronzino, Henri Matisse, etc as they’re sensitive to the light. You can see Isabella in white and pearls painted freely by Anders Zorn and titled “Isabella Stewart Gardner in Venice.”
- Little Salon: Little Salon is done in the Rococo art style with wines and flowers, housing French paintings, Italian furnishings, and German sculpture. Huge, lavish tapestries decorate the wall space, along with the 1780 mirror, purchased from the Palazzo Morosini in Venice. At the top of the mirror is an oval shield with the arms of Doge Francesco Morosini (1619-1694). Delicate blue armchairs, covered in blue moiré satin striped fabric, are painted furniture that was purchased by Isabella Stewart Gardner in Venice in 1906. Here you’ll find an oil painting created by the court artist to King Louis XV- The Chariot of Venus, 1750 by François Boucher.
- Tapestry Room: The Tapestry Room is one of the largest and darkest spaces in the palace that evokes a great medieval ballroom in a northern European castle. This room has beautiful art: Saint Engracia, 1474 by Bartolomé Bermejo, cases with Islamic manuscripts, Pedro Benabarre, St. Michael Archangel above the fireplace, etc. Ten large, rich Flemish tapestries decorate the walls, depicting stories of the ancient Persian king Cyrus the Great and Abraham.
- Dutch Room: The Dutch room features light green Venetian-style fabric walls with art by Anthony van Dyck, Woman with a rose, Rembrandt, self-portrait, age 23; Peter Paul Rubens, Thomas Howard. Rembrandts were stolen from this room, and empty frames still hang on the walls. The Dutch Room is also large, and Gardner enjoyed entertaining guests in it. She hosted dinners there, including one for the Harvard football team following their victory over Yale in 1909, according to the museum’s description.
Stairway:
- Giorgio Vasari – Musicians, about 1545, fresco
- Even the staircases look enigmatic, filled with sculptures, fragments, and decorations. Isabella Stewart Gardner asked to paint the main stairwell from the Courtyard to the second and third floors in Bardini Blue, a shade of royal blue favored by the Florentine gallery owner Stefano Bardini. Here you’ll find the Portrait of a Lady in Black by Domenico Tintoretto.
Third Floor:
- Veronese Room: This reflects Isabella Stewart Gardner’s love for Venice, like some other rooms in the palace. The painting on the ceiling, the Coronation of Hebe, was attributed to Veronese, an Italian Renaissance master. Isabella collected an eclectic mixture of objects here, such as leather panels from Spain, Italy, and the Netherlands, gilded china saucers, cups, and a pitcher, and the Venetian chair-seat from a Gig. There are several small pastels by James McNeill Whistler as well.
- Titian Room: The Titian Room is another opulent space in stunning red. Bathed in bright, afternoon light, this space is a spectacle of Baroque textiles and Rococo furniture, showcasing art by Titian, Rape of Europa; B.Cellini, Bindo A.; Velázquez, Philip IV of Spain, Landucci’s armchairs, Circle of Bellini, Christ carrying the cross.
- Long Gallery and chapel: the Long Gallery is also a very interesting space in blue and gold because it accommodates an archive, a library, a gallery, and a chapel all at once. You’ll pass by a variety of ancient objects, sculptures, church furniture, modern letters, photographs, rare books, Renaissance paintings, and the 12 cases of historical manuscripts, personal correspondence, etc. Here you’ll find Botticelli, Virgin and Chil,d and the stained-glass window from Soissons Cathedral.
- Spanish Chapel: Tomb Figure of a Knight, about 1498-1500, Salamanca, alabaster; The Self-Mortification of Saint Benedict, about 1496 by Albrecht Dürer, (Nuremberg, 1471 – 1528), white glass with silver stain, vitreous paint, and back-painting
- Gothic Room: Simone Martini, Virgin and Child; Giotto, Christ Child in the temple; John S. Sargent, Isabella Stewart Gardner, Adam and Eve,16th century by Lucas Cranach the Elder. Dark and mysterious, this Gothic room was designed as a chapel with Gothic art, beautiful old books, chests, and a stained-glass window from a French Cathedral! In a wooden bookcase, you’ll find a collection of books by the medieval Italian writer, Dante.
Venetian palazzo in Boston
During the couple’s visits to Venice, they stayed in the Palazzo Barbaro on the Grand Canal, which was an inspirational hub for her soul. Back home in Boston, Isabella didn’t want her treasures locked in a vault for herself only. In 1898, tragedy struck again—Jack died suddenly of a stroke at 65. Undeterred, the 58-year-old widow poured her grief into creation. She bought a swampy Fenway plot and envisioned Fenway Court: a 15th-century Venetian palazzo transplanted to Boston’s marshes. Construction began in 1899 under architect Willard T. Sears, blending Byzantine mosaics, Gothic loggias, and a soaring glass-roofed courtyard garden bursting with exotic blooms year-round—palm fronds swaying beside marble statues, a living heartbeat at the museum’s core. Completed in 1901, Isabella spent two years installing her collection exactly as she dreamed: no chronological order or labels, just poetic juxtapositions, no changes afterwards. A Raphael self-portrait gazes over 18th-century French furniture; Greek artifacts mingle with Japanese screens. She opened the doors to the public in 1903, but with a twist—this was her home on the 4th floor, too. Upstairs, her private apartment brimmed with lion-skin rugs and velvet drapes, the rest of the house was destined to become an art museum. She was 62 years old when Isabella opened it. When she died in 1924 (at 84), her will about the art museum came into effect.
Isabella Gardner famous parties
Fenway Court wasn’t a mere art gallery for private parties; it was Boston’s cultural supernova that she designed herself. Isabella, the “Queen of the Back Bay,” hosted legendary soirées: Bach concerts under the courtyard stars, literary salons where ideas crackled like fireworks. Her circle? A who ‘s-who of genius. John Singer Sargent, who immortalized her in a scandalous portrait, dined at her table. Henry James, the novelist, called her his “splendid and terrible Isabella,” penning tales inspired by her Venice haunts. Whistler sketched her; Anders Zorn painted her; even Asian scholar Okakura Kakuzō shaped her taste for Eastern art. She championed women like Julia Ward Howe and backed composers like Walter Damrosch. Eccentric to the core, Isabella once crashed a symphony in a Red Sox headband, scandalizing prudes. Her parties blurred the lines between high society and bohemia, making Fenway Court the epicenter of America’s Gilded Age arts scene.
I must mention the Gardner Museum courtyard garden, which is incredibly beautiful and draws you in with serene flowers and the exotic architectural vibe of the Venetian-style house. The Courtyard showcases Isabella Stewart Gardner’s exquisite taste as she arranged a beautiful display of objects from all over the world: Africa, Italy, Spain, Greece, etc . You can see all rooms here: https://www.gardnermuseum.org/experience/rooms
Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Heist
Yet for all its splendor, Fenway Court harbors an unsolved Isabella Stewart Gardner museum heist story. On March 18, 1990, two thieves in Boston police uniforms duped night guards Rick Abath and Randy Herguard into buzzed entry. “We got a report of a disturbance,” they lied. What followed was cinema-villain audacity: 81 minutes of mayhem. They covered the security guards’ eyes and mouths with duct tape, handcuffed them to pipes, and put them in basement spaces, away from each other. The thieves also disabled security cameras and pillaged the Dutch Room.
Saws whirred as they slashed Rembrandt’s Christ in the Storm on the Sea of Galilee—his only seascape he ever painted—from its frame (Rembrandt’s face is one of the men painted in a seascape). They also took another large Rembrandt with a double portrait of a Dutch couple, ripping off the canvases from their frames with a sharp blade! The thieves also ripped off a painting they thought was the third Rembrandt but it was his student’s art ( Govert Flinck was one of numerous students). According to Anthony Amore, the thieves also planned on stealing Rembrandt’s self-portrait, painted at 23 years of age, as they took it down, turned it to lean against the chest, and then forgot to take this painting with them!
They pocketed Vermeer’s The Concert, one of just 36 artworks ever painted by the artist, worth $250 million alone, five Degas sketches ( three of them are images of jockeys and horses), a tiny, postage-stamp-sized Rembrandt etching, and an eagle finial from the Imperial Guard of Emperor Napoleon; the flag vanished too. Total haul: 13 pieces, half a billion dollars. They had stolen six pieces from the Dutch Room and six from the Short Gallery: the drawings and the eagle. That makes 12. There’s one more small painting by Manet they took from the Blue Room downstairs.
The thieves spray-painted a camera lens for good measure and fled into the dawn, leaving the guards bound till morning. The thieves spent an hour and 21 minutes inside the museum, more than any other thieves! To this day, those gaping frames hang exactly as the thieves left them—a defiant monument to loss. The FBI’s probe rages on, with a $10 million reward dangling like forbidden fruit. Was it mafia muscle? Art-world insiders? Theories swirl, but the masterpieces remain ghosts.
It looks like the thieves were ordered to steal Rembrandts as every other museum in Massachusetts with Rembrandt paintings had been robbed before the Gardner’s, according to the audio talk by Anthony Amore, the Museum’s Chief of Security, and Chief Investigator. Could one of the thieves be French, as other French artworks disappeared from the museum too?
The Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum stolen art: true crime art heist
On March 18, 1990, 13 artworks were stolen from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston, Massachusetts. The Gardner Museum theft remains unsolved, and as of October 2025, none of the items have been recovered. The total estimated value exceeds $500 million, with a $10 million reward offered for information leading to their return in good condition. Below is a complete list of the 13 artworks stolen from the Gardner Museum.
| # | Artist | Title | Date | Medium | Estimated Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Rembrandt van Rijn | The Storm on the Sea of Galilee | 1633 | Oil on canvas | $140 million |
| 2 | Rembrandt van Rijn | A Lady and Gentleman in Black | c. 1633 | Oil on oak panel | Not specified |
| 3 | Johannes Vermeer | The Concert | c. 1664 | Oil on canvas | $250 million |
| 4 | Édouard Manet | Chez Tortoni | 1878 | Oil on canvas | Not specified |
| 5 | Govert Flinck | Landscape with an Obelisk | c. 1638 | Oil on canvas | Not specified |
| 6 | Edgar Degas | Program for an Artistic Soirée | c. 1879 | Charcoal and chalk on paper | < $100,000 (combined for Degas sketches) |
| 7 | Edgar Degas | La Sortie du Conservatoire (study) | c. 1879 | Pencil on paper | < $100,000 (combined for Degas sketches) |
| 8 | Edgar Degas | Three Mounted Jockeys | c. 1885 | Pencil on paper | < $100,000 (combined for Degas sketches) |
| 9 | Edgar Degas | Count Lepic and His Daughters | c. 1882 | Pencil on paper | < $100,000 (combined for Degas sketches) |
| 10 | Edgar Degas | Little Dancer Aged Fourteen (study) | c. 1880–85 | Pencil on paper | < $100,000 (combined for Degas sketches) |
| 11 | Rembrandt van Rijn | Self-Portrait (etching) | 1631 | Etching | Not specified |
| 12 | Unknown (ancient Chinese) | Bronze gu (beaker/vessel) | c. 1200–1100 BC | Bronze | Several thousand dollars |
| 13 | Unknown (French Imperial) | Eagle finial (Napoleonic standard top) | 1813–14 | Gilt bronze | Not specified ($100,000 reward for this item alone) |
Isabella Stewart Gardner Legacy in Boston
Isabella died in 1924 at 84, her will a masterpiece of prescience: $1 million endowment, ironclad rule—no rearranging her galleries, ever.
“Surrounded by the treasures which I have gathered for the benefit of the public,” her inscription reads on a courtyard tombstone.
Fenway Court evolved into the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, a beacon drawing 1.5 million visitors yearly. Her legacy? Democratizing art—free admission in her day, eclectic displays that spark visual joy over monotonous lectures. She shattered glass ceilings for women patrons, mentored Berenson into legend, and infused Boston with Venice’s mysterious soul. Even the museum heist makes her art collection even more famous.
Today, as a new wing by Renzo Piano expands the space without touching her core, Isabella’s spirit endures—bold, unapologetic, eternally collecting hearts. In a world of algorithms and online auctions, Isabella reminds us: Art is experienced. What secrets might those empty frames still whisper? The queen’s palace awaits.
Tickets & audio guide:
Tickets: adult-$22 and free for children. The house is very crowded with visitors, and I suggest visiting it earlier in the morning. You can listen to the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum history at https://www.gardnermuseum.org/audioguides . Address: 25 Evans Way, Boston, MA 02115
To continue Reading:
Rembrandt’s Rise & Fall: inside Amsterdam’s House-Museum
Discover how one of the most famous artists lived, loved, created, and failed. Visit his House-Museum in Amsterdam to trace Rembrandt’s career, art, and success.
Video on YouTube: https://youtu.be/-WpakXGmLjA
Article with images: https://veronicasart.com/revealing-rembrandts-artistic-career-inside-the-amsterdams-house-museum/
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Untold story of famous ancient Greek sculptors: an artist perspective on realist techniques in search of the divine
Famous Ancient Greek Sculptors: An Artist’s Perspective on Realism
450-440 BC. A close-up of the hand. The British Museum.
Ancient Greece, a society that had enormous influence on Western thought and culture, held the human form in the highest esteem. The trajectory of ancient Greek sculpture shows an evolution from the stylized forms of the Archaic period to the elevated naturalism of the Classical and Hellenistic eras. Greek sculptors sought to capture the divine essence in art not only by perfecting anatomy but also by pioneering innovative methods for lifelike portrayal.
Unlike in previous cultures, Greek sculptors expressed emotion through striking body movement and unique facial features, especially in the Hellenistic period. Capturing movement in realistic figures in the round is much harder to achieve than in sculptures that have a specific location or point of view. (Most sculptures were made as decorations for temples and buildings with a wall or support behind the figures, thus limiting the viewership.) When the sculpture is a stand-alone piece, we can look at it from different angles, and each viewing point must give us an interesting pose.
I’ve traveled to Italy multiple times to marvel at the naturalistic beauty of Roman sculpture, a feat so exquisite it seems beyond the reach of modern hands, especially in an era where Beauty is often overlooked by contemporary curators, advisors, museums, and collectors chasing flashy, high-priced works. Since the late 19th century, classical ideals have been largely abandoned, and humanity has lost touch with the artistry and ideals of ancient Greece.
When Rome conquered Greece, many Greek artists relocated to Rome, passing their expertise to future generations. The Greco-Roman art we cherish today, primarily Roman copies of lost Greek originals, reflects Rome’s deep admiration for Greek ideals. Roman sculptors, who didn’t sign their works, meticulously replicated Greek sculptures, underscoring their reverence for the unparalleled cultural and artistic achievements of ancient Greece.
It’s mind-blowing to see how ancient Greeks achieved such an incredible level of realism, depicting life-like figures in bronze and marble, and it’s no less surprising to witness some Roman artists being able to copy the most beautiful sculptures in marble. Both cultures figured out the tools, techniques, and materials to do so with incredible skill. Most importantly, these artists applied their genius to create unsurpassed principles in lifelike representation of human form that spoke with emotion and ethereal beauty.
While some contemporary sculptors work in the realist tradition, few capture the divine essence of beauty found in ancient art. Modern works may achieve anatomical accuracy, but they often lack the elusive perfection, flow, and luminescence of their ancient counterparts. The 19th-century sculptor Antonio Canova came close, masterfully crafting human forms, particularly female figures, with airy grace and refined elegance. Yet, Canova’s marble sculptures, infused with perpetual sweetness and idealism, differ from Greek works due to his distinct aesthetic and love for naturalism.
Two contemporary Spanish sculptors, Coderch and Malavia, stand out for their work in the classical tradition. Their hauntingly beautiful sculptures echo the elegance and ethereal quality of Greek art. Though their poses, patina finishes, and subjects feel modern, the emotional essence of their art resonates with the timeless spirit of ancient sculpture.
Pliny the Elder, the earliest art historian, lived during the Roman Imperial Period and documented his observations in Natural History, much like Vitruvius and Vasari. He chronicled the works of renowned Greek artists such as Myron, Polykleitos, and Lysippos, describing their colossal statues decorating temples, including Pheidias’ Athena in the Parthenon and Olympian Zeus. Pliny admired Polykleitos’ athletic figures, noting his influential Canon of proportions and invention of contrapposto, which revolutionized figurative art. He compared Myron and Polykleitos, observing that both focused on physical form but conveyed little emotion. Myron prioritized symmetry and productivity, while Polykleitos emphasized idealized proportions. Pliny also praised Lysippos’ prolific output and distinctive style, characterized by slender figures, smaller heads, and unique hair treatments, noting that Emperor Tiberius cherished Lysippos’ bronze Apoxyomenos. Additionally, Pliny highlighted marble sculptors Praxiteles and Scopas. He celebrated Praxiteles’ fame and wealth, particularly for his famous nude Aphrodite of Knidos. Scopas, alongside contemporaries Bryaxis, Timotheos, and Leochares, worked in marble and collaborated on the grand Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (359 BC), a masterpiece now lost.
Greek sculptors aimed to portray idealized forms rather than strict realism. Their figures embodied perfect proportions, balance, and beauty, representing a higher ideal rather than everyday human flaws. Thus, youthful figures of gods and athletes supported that idealism without expressive emotions or unique, individual features, portrayed later on in the Hellenistic and Roman sculptures.
Ancient Greek sculptors predominantly cast their works in bronze, valuing its durability for artistic creations. They fashioned colossal bronze statues of deities for temples such as the Temple of the Olympian Zeus. The large, free-standing, and captured-in-motion statues became known as the severe style figures. (The bronze statue of Zeus, 460 BC). The severe style evolved into Classical and Hellenistic art later on (more on this below).
While some artists also utilized a soft, white marble, requiring another set of tools and techniques, the fate of many ancient Greek bronzes was unfortunate: they were often melted down and repurposed for weaponry or other endeavors. Consequently, the rare bronze sculptures surviving today owe their preservation to unusual circumstances, including accidental underwater discoveries that kept them in nearly perfect condition. Although no colossal bronze statues remain, historical records attest to their former fame. Smaller bronzes were found in Rome and throughout Europe, concurred by the Romans who revered the art and other cultures, and thus preserved them in private collections. This article will trace the progression of ancient Greek sculpture through famous sculptors and their art across various periods and styles.
Ancient Greek and Roman public spaces, cemeteries, and sacred sanctuaries brimmed with bronze and marble sculptures. Bronze was favored by some sculptors for its ability to capture dynamic poses. Over time, nearly all bronze statues were melted down for reuse, making surviving examples exceptionally rare. This Roman bronze (copper-alloy) statue, possibly inspired by a Greek prototype, has an unidentified subject. Its eyes, originally crafted with silver, glass, or precious stones, lent a lifelike quality. Copper inlays on the lips and nipples created a vivid red hue. Cast in multiple pieces and mechanically assembled, the statue’s surface was polished to a seamless finish, obscuring the joins.
Major periods:
- Early archaic period (600-480 BCE): Stiff, stylized figures
- Classical period (480-323 BCE): Anatomical accuracy & beauty. Balanced mathematical proportions with artistic interpretation. (The Kritios Boy, 480 BC, becomes one of the first sculptures to depart from the archaic period statues. The boy stands in a natural Contrapposto pose that resembles the Kouros but has a natural pose shifted to one leg.
- Hellenistic period (323-31 BCE): Detailed, emotionally expressive, and anatomically correct representations
Who were the Mycenaeans in ancient Greece? https://veronicasart.com/from-perseus-to-trojan-war-7-mind-blowing-myths-about-mycenae-that-changed-ancient-greece/
Myron: Capturing Emotion & Character in Bronze (c. 480-440 BCE)
- Famous for capturing movement and dynamic poses
- Used multiple-piece molds for complex sculptures
- Specialized in bronze casting & developed advanced lost-wax casting methods
- Famous art: Discobolus (Discus Thrower)
Myron of Eleutherae, an Athenian sculptor active during the mid-5th century BCE, stands as the first famous ancient Greek sculptor who transitioned towards realism in ancient Greece. The first famous Greek sculptor of classical antiquity and the pupil of the sculptor Ageladas of Argos, Myron, is known for his creation of the athletes in motion. Myron’s active period is generally placed around 480-440 BC, as he crafted statues to commemorate the victories of athletes in the Olympic Games during the mid-5th century BCE.
Discobolus (Discus Thrower), 450 BC
Among his most famous creations is the Discobolus (Discus Thrower) (450 BC), a work that captures the fleeting moment of an athlete poised to release the discus. The athlete’s pose, originally frozen in bronze, represents a perfect balance, harmony, and rhythm in a coiled figure. Ancient accounts emphasize the sculpture’s lifelike quality. While the original is lost to time, Romans made numerous marble copies, and one of them stands in the British Museum today. It’s named the “Townley Discobolus”, dates to the second century AD, and comes from the art collection of Charles Townley (1737-1805).
450-440 BC. This statue was discovered in 1791 in the Villa of the Roman Emperor Hadrian AD 117-138) at Tivoli outside Rome. The head, although ancient and found with the statue, is not the original. Formerly in the collection of Charles Townley in London. Displayed at the British Museum.
Technically, Myron did complex bronze casting of figures, exploring the dynamic poses and life-like movements of male figures. Myron’s artistic style marked a significant shift from stylized figures of the Archaic period by introducing life-like dynamism, rhythm, beauty, and natural balance in poses. The lost-wax method gave him the advantage of depicting human form in hollow statues that would have been considerably more difficult, if not impossible, to realize in stone during that era. The hollow-cast segments were put together and polished at the end of the artistic process. To further enhance the lifelike quality, contrasting metals might have been used for details such as nipples and lips, and the eyes were often inlaid with materials like ivory, glass, or semi-precious stones.
The colossal groups:
His gift was the ability to capture life and moral stories in bronze. Myron often created grouped sculptures to tell a moral story, illustrating a Greek myth. One of such pieces is the group of Athena and Marsyas, which depicts a moment of dramatic tension between the goddess and the satyr displayed on the Athenian Acropolis. In her youth, goddess Athena is credited with the invention of the musical instrument auloi or double-flute that required subtle breath control.
According to the Roman writer Strabo, a group of three colossal figures, Herakles, Zeus, and Athena, created by Myron, once stood on the sacred way leading to the Temple of Hera on the island of Samos. The Roman General Mark Antony is said to have carried the sculptures off as a trophy, but the emperor Augustus restored two of them to their original location and took the Zeus sculpture to Rome.
Myron’s artistic repertoire included statues of gods, heroes, and animals, with his bronze cow gaining particular renown for its realism, as it was said to be mistaken for a real animal. Romans were fascinated by the art of Myron, and some sculptures were discovered in Rome.
Other Famous Sculptures of this period:
Severe style (480-450BC): figures capture emotion and character through body movement and facial features.
Zeus, Athens
The large, free-standing, and captured-in-motion statues became known as the severe style figures. One such example is the bronze statue of Zeus (460BC). It captures continuous movement and has a strange, smiling face with traces of copper on its lips. Bronze sculptures often had ivory and glass-paste eyes, bronze eyelashes, and copper lips. This sculpture stands tall in the museum in Athens.
Bronze Charioteer, Delphi
Bronze Charioteer, Delphi. Chariot races were competitions for divine favor in ancient Greece. I saw this sculpture in Delphi and thought of a female form, rather than a male depicted in bronze. The sculpture has beautiful feet, color-inlayed eyes, and a calm face. The pose looks restricted, reminiscent of a Doric-style column with its fabric folds streaming down the figure.
The Niobid, 450BC
Classical style: Unification of motion and feeling in a sculpture.
The Niobid, 450BC, is the earliest found example of a large female nude in Greek art. The woman shows the pinwheel stance of the ancient Gorgon relief from Corfu. From the History of Art
Phidias: The Ideal Made Tangible (c. 490-430 BCE)
- The most renowned sculptor of the Classical period
- Chief sculptor of the Parthenon in Athens
- Worked primarily with marble and chryselephantine (gold and ivory) techniques
- Used precise measurement and mathematical proportions
- Pioneered techniques for creating large-scale architectural sculptures
- Famous art: Statue of Zeus at Olympia, Athena Parthenos
The artist’s most significant works were realized during the Athenian Golden Age under the patronage of Pericles. Chief sculptor Phidias oversaw the production of all sculptures in the Parthenon and is famous for the lost gold statue of Athena in the Parthenon, a colossal gold-ivory statue of Zeus in Olympia, and a huge bronze statue of Athena that stood on the Acropolis facing the Propylaea (Main Entry). The “Phidian style” dominated Greek sculpture until the end of the 5th century. Figures had a harmonious composition, “wet” garments, strong diagonals, and movement in often confined spaces. In my opinion, the colossal statues were not as realistic or anatomically accurate as those of other famous Greek sculptors, based on remaining copies seen today; however, the artist employed a unique combination of materials and techniques to create them. The artist possessed remarkable skill in sculpting across a diverse range of materials, including stone, bronze, silver, gold, wood, marble, ivory, and the complex combination of gold and ivory known as chryselephantine. Phidias also established the iconic visual representation of Greek gods and goddesses that we see represented in late marble sculptures. Phidias is widely recognized as the originator of the High Classical style, which emphasized idealized beauty, harmony, and balance. He’s associated with the early application of the “Golden Ratio” in his work.
Athena Parthenos
Among his most iconic creations is the Athena Parthenos, a colossal statue crafted using the chryselephantine technique (gold and ivory) and housed within the Parthenon (lost today). Constructed from wood and partially overlaid with plates of ivory for the flesh and solid gold for the drapery and ornaments, this colossal statue showcased unparalleled craftsmanship using precious materials. Its sheer scale and elaborate details served as a powerful reflection of Athens’ wealth, power, and profound devotion to its patron goddess.
The Parthenon frieze’ sculptures
Furthermore, Phidias is credited with the design and the supervision of the Parthenon Frieze, an extensive series of marble sculptures that decorated the temple in its original form. These sculptures, depicting the Panathenaic procession, are celebrated for their life-like quality of both human and animal anatomy. The frieze blends idealized forms with anatomical details, creating a sense of movement and life in a constrained space. The Parthenon’s sculptures are displayed in the British Museum today as they were removed from the original location in the 19th century. They show deities witnessing the birth of Athena from the head of Zeus. The Parthenon sculptures were meticulously carved from marble and originally covered in vibrant paint. Phidias had a thorough understanding of anatomy and chose to depict the divine through idealized forms.
Sculpture example: Iris is a messenger goddess. She acted as herald for the chariot group of Poseidon. She had wings and descended to Earth from flight. The bronze wings were made separately. The drapery rushes against her body, flapping in the wind. Blue color has been found on her belt. WEST PEDIMENT N
The north frieze begins with a preparation scene reminiscent of those on the west. A boy helps a rider to adjust the length of his tunic, while another horseman waits in readiness. As this man restrains his horse, he anxiously looks back at his unprepared comrade. NORTH FRIEZE XLVII, 132-136
The horsemen of the north frieze: The composition of the north frieze is less varied than the south frieze. The 60 horsemen are arranged into ten ranks. The dress and armor vary from figure to figure.
The north frieze occupied one of the long sides of the Parthenon, continuing the cavalcade that began on the west side. Chariots ran ahead of the horsemen, and ahead of them came various groups of pedestrians.
The Parthenon’s Metopes:
The Parthenon’s metopes captivate due to their dynamic figure compositions within constrained spaces. Striking diagonals, precise anatomy, thoughtful compositions, and expressive faces elevate these sculptures, making them beautiful.
Zeus at Olympia
Phidias also created the gigantic Zeus at Olympia, another colossal chryselephantine sculpture considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Depicting the king of the gods seated majestically on a throne, its immense size at 12 meters high and the opulent use of ivory and gold evoked a profound sense of divine presence. Lost today, we can only imagine the statue’s power and might.
Polyclitus: The male ideal of body proportions (c. 450-415 BCE)
- Developed the famous “Canon of Proportions”
- Created detailed anatomical studies and used precise mathematical ratios for human (male) body proportions
- Worked in bronze
- Developed a systematic approach to symmetry in sculpture
- Famous Art: Doryphoros (Spear Bearer)
Polykleitos or Polyclitus of Argos, a sculptor from the distinguished Argive school, flourished in the mid to late 5th century BCE and is celebrated for his masterful bronze sculptures, particularly his depictions of youthful, beautiful athletes. Beyond his sculptural achievements, Polyclitus was a highly influential aesthetician, best known for his theoretical treatise, the Canon, which outlined ideal mathematical proportions for the human body, which are still debated today. Polyclitus was a contemporary of Phidias, and together they created classical Greek style, although they were different in their artistic aesthetic. I think Phidias’ frontal statues in the round looked quite stiff and static in comparison to the beautiful, flowing figures made by Polykleitos that we could admire from different points of view. Only Roman copies of his bronzes (450 BC) exist today. But we can see that Polykleitos was a master of human proportion and aesthetic beauty, as he invented the visual ideal of a flowing figure, the contrapposto style (which is a relaxed pose of the figure as the body’s weight is placed on one leg). His figures were meticulously crafted, exhibiting balance, rhythm, and anatomical perfection not seen before in free-standing figures. The artist also promoted the cult of the athlete through his art. Athletic competition was highly valued in Greek culture, and you can read about the Olympic Games in my article about Delphi. The male nude became a way to glorify the perfect athletic form, representing strength, power, glory, and civic virtue. These qualities were highly desirable in male citizens of the state. Polyclitus’s innovations in the realistic depiction of the human figure, the creation of the Canon and contrapposto, became the principles of classical art that are revered by realist artists up to this day. The artist created the universal representation of a male figure for centuries to come.
Polyclitus considered ratios to have a spiritual dimension: contemplation of harmonious proportions equaled contemplation of the good. Human and divine beauty harmonize to become one. From the History of Art
Technically, Polyclitus primarily worked in bronze, except for his Hera of Argos, which was created using the chryselephantine method. He utilized the lost-wax casting technique, a method that allowed for great precision and detail in his bronze art.
The Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer)
His renowned artwork, the Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer), is widely considered the quintessential embodiment of Polyclitus’ Canon, illustrating his principles of ideal mathematical proportions and the concept of ‘symmetria’. The Doryphoros is famous for its innovative use of contrapposto, a pose that depicts a figure in a balanced yet dynamic stance, with the weight of the body shifted onto one leg, creating a beautiful, natural ‘flow’ of the figure. A young man has a relaxed expression, yet he is about to walk off his pedestal. One of the marble copies is displayed in Naples, Italy. Depicting natural forms, the sculptor perfected proportions, composition, and movement, as ratios were fundamental for Greek philosophers, musicians, mathematicians, and sculptors.
The Diadumenos
Another famous statue by Polyclitus is the Diadumenos (Man Tying on a Fillet). It portrays a young athlete tying a ribbon around his head after his victory in an athletic competition, showcasing a sense of youthful grace, lightness, and effortless poise in a realistic figure. There are several marble copies made from the original bronze sculpture in existence today. I saw one in Athens, the British Museum, and the Met. The marble copy standing at the British Museum was found in a Roman villa in France. It’s recorded that the original fetched the price of a hundred talents, an enormous sum in the ancient world.
The original bronze probably stood in a sanctuary such as that at Olympia or Delphi. “The figure’s thorax and pelvis tilt in opposite directions, setting up rhythmic contrasts in the torso that create an impression of organic vitality. The position of the feet—poised between standing and walking—gives a sense of potential movement. This rigorously calculated pose, which is found in almost all works attributed to Polykleitos, became a standard formula used in Graeco-Roman and later Western European art.” From the description at the Met.
Other works:
His other artistic contributions include a colossal gold and ivory statue of the goddess Hera of Argos, which was favorably compared to Phidias’s monumental Zeus at Olympia, as well as various statues of Amazons and other athletes, further demonstrating his mastery of the human form.
By Manfred Werner (Tsui); cropped and edited by Mary Harrsch – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=80929320
The artist’s sense of naturalism and dynamism in representing a strong, male figure in the nude became a standard for classical artists in achieving lifelike representation.
Praxiteles: Infusing Grace and Sensuality (active around 370-330 BCE)
The Late Classical Era and Evolving Realism
- Master of marble sculpture
- Known for sensual and naturalistic figures, including female nudes
- Advanced marble carving techniques
- Developed a softer, fluid sculpting style with accurate and elegant anatomical details
- Famous art: Aphrodite of Knidos (the first realistic female nude sculpture), many sculptures are displayed in the Louvre
Being a younger contemporary of the sculptor Scopas, an exceptionally talented artist, Praxiteles became one of the most famous Greek sculptors, with his art still found in London, the Vatican, the Louvre, Olympia, and Rome today. Praxiteles of Athens, active in the 4th century BCE, rose to become the most celebrated of the Attic sculptors, renowned for the elegance, beauty, and sensuousness of his art. He is notably credited as the first sculptor to depict the nude female form in a life-sized statue, marking a serious departure from earlier conventional representations.
Aphrodite of Knidos:
Among his most famous works is the Aphrodite of Knidos, a groundbreaking sculpture that portrayed the goddess of love in complete nudity, establishing a new artistic standard for the depiction of the female nude in Western art. Its sensuous rendering and graceful pose contributed to its status as one of the most celebrated sculptures of antiquity. The first known completely nude goddess is ‘Cnidian Aphrodite,’ a marble Roman copy after the 340 BC original, located in the Vatican.
Male statues:
Praxiteles’s artistic style is characterized by a shift from the more rigid idealism of the High Classical period towards a greater emphasis on grace, sensuality, and a more humanized depiction of the gods. His male figures exhibit the ethereal beauty, elegance, and unbelievable knowledge of anatomy, proportion, and scale. He is one of my favorite artists as his statues show harmonious beauty and naturalism in sensual, relaxed, gracefully flowing poses, so hard to achieve in classical art. Praxiteles’ sculptures of male figures had a lot more anatomical detail and precision than the female form, which was characteristic of ancient Greek sculpture in general. In his work, the marble sculptures have sensual curves in the torso, perfectly proportioned legs, gentle arms, and faces, which exemplify his art style and aesthetic. He famously employed the “Praxitelean curve,” a sensual S-shaped contrapposto that lent a languid and elegant quality to his figures, distinguishing them from the more upright postures of his predecessors. His works are also famous for their smooth surfaces and the delicate modeling of forms, creating a sense of softness and naturalism.
Such an example is “Hermes and Infant Bacchus“, a Roman copy of the 320 bc original, Olympia. It stood at the temple of Hera in Olympia. Hermes with the Infant Dionysus is a marble statue renowned for its delicate modeling and exquisite surface finish. This piece exemplifies the grace and life-like charm that Praxiteles brought to his portrayals of deities, moving away from the more austere representations of earlier periods. https://ancientolympiamuseum.com/index.php/2022/07/18/hermes-of-praxiteles
The god of the arts, shown as an adolescent, prepares to kill a lizard. The scene is a reference to the protective nature of the god or, in an indirect way, to his struggle against the serpent Python
“Apollo Belvedere,” a Roman marble copy of a Greek original, 4th BCE, is another famous example of an artist’s talent that exemplifies harmonious beauty. His artistic output also included Apollo Sauroktonos (Apollo the Lizard-Slayer) and various other depictions of gods, satyrs, and nymphs.
The Cleveland Apollo: Apollo Sauroktonos (Lizard-Slayer) or Apollo the Python-Slayer
c. 350–200 BCE
Technically, Praxiteles primarily utilized marble as his medium, particularly the highly prized marble from the island of Paros, which allowed for a fine level of detail and a luminous finish. However, he also worked with bronze, demonstrating his proficiency in metal casting as well. He valued the surface finish of his marble sculptures and reportedly held in high regard those that were further enhanced by the application of paint by the renowned artist Nikias, indicating the importance of color in ancient sculpture.
Praxiteles’s emphasis on the nude female form, particularly in his Aphrodite of Knidos, and his overall sensual style represent a significant evolution in artistic and cultural attitudes towards the human body and the depiction of divinity. The creation of a life-sized female nude for public display was a groundbreaking act, suggesting a changing societal perspective that allowed for a more direct and sensual representation of the female form, even within a religious context. Furthermore, the reported collaboration between Praxiteles and the painter Nikias underscores the significant role of polychromy in ancient Greek sculpture. (To read about polychromies in ancient Greek art, go to this article I wrote about ancient Greek Sphinxes.) This practice highlights that these sculptures were not intended to be viewed as pristine white marble but were likely enhanced with vibrant colors to further the illusion of life and contribute to their overall impact.
This Venus was presented to King Louis XIV of France as a gift in 1683. François Girardon, the king’s sculptor, added the goddess of love’s attributes: a mirror and an apple, references to her victory in the Judgement of Paris. This work may be a copy of the Aphrodite of Thespiae (Boeotia, Greece), commissioned around 360 BC from the sculptor Praxiteles by the courtesan Phryne.
Scopas: The Sculptor of Emotion (c. 370-330 BCE)
Scopas of Paros, a prominent Greek sculptor and architect of the Late Classical period, is considered one of the foremost sculptors of the second half of the 4th century BCE. He played a crucial role in establishing the expression of powerful emotions as a central theme in artistic representation, marking a shift towards a more dramatic and psychologically engaging art style.
Scopas’s artistic style is distinguished by its emphasis on intense emotional expression, dynamic and often twisting compositions, and a departure from the more restrained and passionless features characteristic of earlier Classical sculpture. His figures frequently exhibit deep-set eyes, furrowed brows, and slightly opened mouths, all contributing to a palpable sense of pathos and inner turmoil. He also moved towards more fluid and naturalistic representations of movement within his sculptural compositions.
Scopas primarily worked in marble, utilizing the marble from his native island of Paros, known for its luminosity and fine quality. He also employed Pentelic marble for some of his sculptures.
In addition to his sculptures, Scopas was also a practicing architect, responsible for the design of the Temple of Athena Alea at Tegea, demonstrating a close integration of sculpture and architecture in his artistic practice. The sculptures from the Temple of Athena Alea at Tegea include the pediment statues depicting the Calydonian Boar Hunt and the Battle of the Amazons, renowned for their intense emotions and dynamic compositions.
Scopas also contributed his talent to the elaborate reliefs decorating the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, working alongside other distinguished sculptors, Bryaxis, Timotheos, Leochares. Writer Pliny the Elder described the architecture of the project and the artists working on it as a team. Each sculptor carved his side of the building. Destroyed today, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, 359-351 BC, was a gigantic tomb built in present-day Turkey. Height 260 ft. Base 117×82 ft. 36 Ionic columns are 40 ft tall. Friezes’ lengths were similar to the Parthenon’s!
From the History of Art: “The monument combined Greek thought about life as a magnificent struggle depicted in battle scenes and the Egyptian pyramid as a roof to show the divine powers of the ruler. The word ‘mausoleum’ became a generic term derived from that funerary building. Scopas was one of the artists working on the friezes. His figures show lots of energy, action, and violence with the Amazons on the battlefield.” Scopas also worked on the temple of Artemis at Ephesus (present-day Turkey). You can see some restoration images here.
Other famous pieces attributed to him include the Dresden Maenad, a depiction of a woman in a Bacchic frenzy, the statue of Pothos, conveying a sense of longing and desire, and possibly the Ares Borghese, a dynamic portrayal of the god of war. Youthful hero or god is a well-preserved sculpture, probably a Roman copy after Scopas, displayed at the Fogg Art Museum (Harvard). It shows the flawless body of a young man in classical proportions and expressive rotation of the head.
There are several classical heads attributed to Scopas displayed at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, such as the head of the goddess Hygieia from the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea. Because the heads show a lot of wear and tear, it’s difficult to judge their former beauty. The Hunter stele by Scopas at the same museum shows well-preserved classical figures in limited view.
There is a marble torso of Youthful Hero or God,a Roman copy after Scopas, displayed at the Harvard Museum. I love the S-curve in the back of that sculpture.
Scopas’s focus on conveying intense feelings in his sculptures marks a significant transition towards the Hellenistic aesthetic, where the inner lives and passions of the figures depicted became a central concern of artistic representation. This emphasis on emotion, contrasting with the detached or idealized expressions of previous periods, reflects a growing artistic interest in portraying the full spectrum of human experience, including suffering and passion. Furthermore, similar to Phidias, Scopas’s significant involvement in major architectural projects highlights the integral relationship between sculpture and architecture in ancient Greece. Sculpture was not a simple decorative element; rather, Greek statues played a vital role in conveying narrative, meaning, and enhancing the overall grandeur and impact of the temples.
Lysippus: Naturalism and Individual Character (c. 370-300 BCE)
Transition to the Hellenistic Era
- Official sculptor to Alexander the Great
- Revolutionized bronze sculpting techniques & used advanced lost-wax casting methods
- Created proportionally smaller heads and slender bodies to make figures appear taller
- Famous Art: Apoxyomenos (Athlete Scraping Himself) & quadriga ( 4 horses) decorating the St. Marco Basilica in Venice.
Lysippus of Sicyon, a famous Greek sculptor of the late Classical period, is recognized for his pivotal role in the transition towards the highest realism of the Hellenistic era. He worked between 370-300 BC and held the distinguished position of official sculptor to Alexander the Great and was celebrated for the lifelike naturalism and slender proportions, a modification of Polykleitos’s system.
The Apoxyomenos
Among his most famous sculptures is the Apoxyomenos (The Scraper), a statue depicting a young, handsome athlete meticulously cleaning himself with a strigil after exercising. (Greek athletes applied oil before the exercise and then removed it after it.) This sculpture exemplifies the artist’s focus on capturing natural movement and his shift towards super-realistic body proportions compared to the idealized forms of earlier periods. A marble copy of the original bronze (330bc) is in the Vatican. It shows an unusually active pose, and a smaller head, but the same slender, elegant, and well-proportioned male body of an athlete.
The artist said that the difference between himself and them was that they represented men as they were, and he as they appeared to be.
From Pliny’s writings, we learned a lot about Lysippus’s artistic style. It’s distinguished by its commitment to lifelike naturalism, the use of slender and often elongated proportions in his figures, and a pronounced focus on portraying individual character rather than adhering to idealized types. His main characteristic was extreme attention to detail. He introduced a new canon of body proportions that differed from the earlier standards set by Polyclitus, featuring smaller heads and leaner bodies, which created the visual impression of greater height in his sculptures. Furthermore, Lysippus’s compositions were designed to be viewed from multiple angles, inviting viewers to move around the sculpture to fully appreciate its three-dimensional form, a departure from the single optimal viewpoint often favored by his predecessors.
Portraits of Alexander the Great
From the museum’s description: “This broken statuette, carved in the 100s B.C., is a small-scale variant of a statue made in the 320s B.C. by Lyssipos. The “Alexander with a Lance” portrayed the king armed and naked, similar to the great heroes of Greek mythology, such as Achilles, with whom Alexander identified. The ruler stands with his weight on one leg, his right arm extended and holding a spear, the left hanging down at his side.”
Lysippus also gained significant recognition for his numerous portraits of Alexander the Great. It was said that Alexander would only allow Lysippus to sculpt his likeness, leading to the creation of a recognizable image of the king featuring tousled hair and an upward-looking gaze, often associated with divine inspiration.
Other work:
His artistic output also included statues of the hero Heracles, the king of the gods, Zeus, and various other athletic figures, demonstrating his talent in mastery of the human form.
Lysippus’s exclusive role as the official sculptor of Alexander the Great underscores the potent influence of art in shaping public perception and immortalizing historical figures. His close association with Alexander allowed him to define the visual representation of this pivotal leader, significantly impacting how Alexander was perceived by both his contemporaries and subsequent generations. Moreover, Lysippus’s innovative shift towards slenderer proportions in his figures and his emphasis on a 360-degree viewing experience indicate a growing artistic interest in creating sculptures that were not only anatomically accurate but also dynamic and engaging from a multitude of perspectives. This evolution in artistic thought moved beyond the concept of a single, ideal viewpoint towards a more immersive and spatially aware sculptural encounter.
Technically, Lysippus primarily worked in bronze, and ancient sources suggest that he was an incredibly prolific sculptor, creating over 1500 works throughout his career. He paid meticulous attention to even minor details, such as the rendering of eyelids and toenails, further enhancing the realism of his figures. His brother, Lysistratus, is credited with pioneering the technique of creating molds directly from living bodies, a method that may have significantly influenced Lysippus’s approach to portraiture and his ability to capture individual likeness with such accuracy. Contemporary artist, Carole Feuerman, does exactly that technique of making molds from living people, thus creating perfect figures she paints and decorates with the Swarovski crystals. I’ve seen her work worldwide, such as at the Venice Biennale 2017 and the King Woman art show in New York. I also see her beautiful sculptures at the Miami art fairs every year.
Another contemporary artist, Karen LaMonte, does sculptures of dresses and garments cast in glass and bronze. If you look at her method, you can imagine a similar technique being used in the past to get the perfect anatomical shape and precision.
We can see that this ancient Greek bronze “Draped male figure” is strikingly similar in technique to the two contemporary artists above.
The final stage: works of the late Classical and Hellenistic period (4th-3rd century B.C.E.)
In classical Athens, during the 5th-4th century B.C.E., sculptors created the most beautiful and powerful art for the democratic Athenians. These pieces were commissioned to decorate temples and public buildings, projecting idealism and youthful, eternal beauty. Later, in the Hellenistic period (late 4th-1st century B.C.E.), artists shifted their focus to glorifying the power and wealth of the contemporary rulers and the elite.
Fourth-century sculpture (400-200 B.C.E.) marked the final stage in Greek art development. This period, labeled as Late Classical or pre-Hellenistic and Hellenistic, followed the conquests of Alexander the Great, who established Alexandria as a new, prominent citadel of power and culture. Consequently, Greek art expanded its influence to Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), Egypt, Mesopotamia, and even India. New major cosmopolitan cities emerged, such as Pergamon, Antioch, and Alexandria.
The statue is probably of the god Apollo, who received his modern name from the dukes of Devonshire, where the statue was displayed in Chatsworth House in Derbyshire. This ‘Chatsworth Head’ is one of the very few complete bronzes to survive, showing the result of a complex lost-wax method. This technique allowed the artist to create the super-fine details on his hair. His eyes would have been made of ivory or a semi-precious stone. This statue was probably made at the wealthy city-state of Tamassos probably by a talented Greek sculptor. The surrounding area was rich in copper, and also the timber needed as fuel to cast the statue. Expensive tin had to be imported to Cyprus to make the bronze alloy. Politiko, Sanctuary of Apollo. Displayed at the British Museum.
From the end of the 4th century B.C.E. onwards, Greek sculpture displayed two distinct trends. The first, classical and conservative, showed respect for past art and academicism, producing new sculptures that either transformed or copied classical prototypes. The second trend, however, rejected Classical idealism in favor of innovation, depicting unique human features, individualism, age, and ethnicity.
Hellenistic sculpture became extremely realistic, varied, and emotional. Unlike the timeless ideals of the Classical period, Hellenistic portraits emphasized individualism, complex character, emotion, and likeness (e.g., the portrait head from Delos, an 80 B.C.E. bronze now in Athens). Beyond sculpture, figures and later portraits of rulers were also depicted on silver and gold coins to assume even more authority and power.
During the Hellenistic period, the Agora’s public spaces continued to house statues of gods and heroes. However, renewed interaction between ancient Greece and the East spurred interest in colossal sculpture, and naturalistic portrait sculpture reached new heights. The Agora featured portraits of politicians, orators, and philosophers depicted as individuals, moving away from classical ideals. Dynastic members of the Hellenistic kingdoms also received honorary statues to encourage their benefaction.
Even as late as the 2nd century A.D., at the time of the traveler Pausanias, statues representing queens of the Hellenistic period stood in the public spaces of the Agora for admiration. Upper-class women had dedicated marble sculptures placed in sanctuaries, while cemeteries remained the sole place for middle-class men and women to have idealistic marble images created as a memorial.
(This writing is based on the displayed info at the archaeological museums in Athens, Greece.)
Hellenistic sculptures:
Venus (Aphrodite in Greek mythology), the goddess of love, is shown crouching, as if surprised while bathing. She attempts to cover herself with her arms, a gesture that ironically draws attention to her nudity. The sculpture’s design encourages the viewer to become a voyeur, observing the goddess in a vulnerable moment. This interplay between the art and the viewer was a style of many Hellenistic sculptures.
The dynamic, twisting pose, meant to be appreciated from multiple angles, reflects the artistic trends of the Hellenistic period (323-31 BC).
Crouching Venus has been part of the collections of Sir Peter Lely and King Charles I. This particular piece is also known as the “Lely Venus” due to its ownership by the artist Sir Peter Lely. It eventually returned to the Royal Collection and is now on loan to the British Museum.
The “Crouching Aphrodite” was a popular subject for both Greek and Roman sculptors, with various copies and interpretations existing from antiquity and beyond. The Roman copies of this type were frequently used for decoration in private villas and public baths.
excavations conducted by Robert Fagan and sponsored by Prince Augustus Frederick, son of George III. restored. Subsequently, in the collection of George, Prince of Wales (later George IV). Given to the British Museum by William IV in 1834.
Alexander the Great ruled Greece as a kingdom, and his rule brought to an end the political independence of the individual Greek cities. His conquest of the old empires to the east and south
opened up vast new areas to the influence of Greek culture.
The Hellenistic period spanned from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE to the rise of the Roman Empire, marked by the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE. After Alexander's death, his generals divided his empire into a series of independent kingdoms, like the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt and the Seleucid Empire in the Middle East. These lands were 'Hellenised' (Hellas means Greece), and the term 'Hellenistic' is used to describe the period between Alexander's death and the fall of Egypt taken by the Roman Empire.
The defeat of Cleopatra and Antony at Actium in 31 BC is the political end of the Hellenistic age, but not the cultural one. Greek culture interacted with existing cultures, leading to new forms of art, literature, and thought.
The loss of autonomy at civic level prompted a new emphasis on individualism. Intellectual and artistic creativity received the highest regard, and the pursuit of cultivated taste encouraged modern activities such as art collecting. The rise of the wealthy generated a new interest in luxury goods, for both private consumption and public display.
Image: By Jastrow – Own work, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1226315
Pergamum altar with Ionic colonnade, 180 bc, is famous for its gigantic carving of dramatic and dynamic figures in the friezes (Pergamum was the city in now present Turkey). One frieze depicted the battle of gods and giants, symbolizing Eumenes’ victories as the victories of the gods. Another frieze showed the life of Telephos, founder of Pergamum and the son of Herakles. This signified the idea of divine kingship enjoyed by Alexander the Great and later Imperial Rome.
Hellenistic art’s realism vividly captured animals, too, with many bronze animal sculptures from this era surviving only as Roman marble copies. The Molossi, an ancient people of Epirus (modern northwest Greece and Albania), bred the Molossian hound, an ancestor of the modern mastiff known for its ferocity. These dogs served as guard dogs for herdsmen and urban households. Aristophanes, the 5th-century BC playwright, humorously described the challenge of passing a Molossian guarding a doorway, and Alcibiades, the notorious Athenian statesman, reportedly owned one with a docked tail.
This sculpture, once wearing a collar, showcases the hound’s powerful jaws and teeth, yet its relaxed posture and upward gaze convey obedience. Five similar sculptures, found near Rome, are believed to be Roman copies of a lost 2nd-century BC Greek bronze original. This particular piece, dubbed the “Jennings Dog,” was acquired in Rome in the 1750s by Henry Constantine Jennings (1731–1819). (Based on a description at the British Museum)
Roman Period: Adoption & Adaptation
Roman sculpture: 1st century BC – 5th century AD
I think it’s important to include art of the Roman period here because it shows a continuation and adoption of ancient Greek ideals and knowledge in sculpture and architecture to the next generation. The Romans conquered Greece in waves from the 2nd century BC to 31 BC, marking the end of the Ptolemaic Kingdom with Cleopatra’s rule. Rome’s building programs had a dual effect on Greek art. Despite losing their independence, Greek art experienced an unusual revival soon thereafter. Romans took a lot of Greek art with them to Rome, and Greek artists also relocated to the city to start anew. Greek artists’ workshops became popular among the wealthy Romans and the government to produce copies of Classical and Hellenistic artworks.
Statues of the emperor, together with images of him on coins and painted panels, were essential to imperial propaganda. They showed his far-flung subjects who he was and reminded them of his power.
This head has glass and stone eyes to make it more life-like and imposing, and was taken from a statue showing the emperor in uniform. It was discovered in 1910 during excavations at Meroe, the ancient capital of Kush in modern Sudan.
The Roman writer Strabo tells us that the Kushites invaded southern Egypt and carried off treasure, including statues of Augustus. A Roman force was sent to retrieve them, but this head escaped them, because it had been ritually buried in front of a temple. In this way, visitors to the temple would step on the emperor’s head, a sign of extreme disrespect. The Kushites intended the burial to be a sign of triumph over the Roman Empire and its emperor. But by a twist of fate, it ultimately preserved this fascinating symbol of power. (Description from the British Museum)
By the 2nd century AD, Athens experienced an artistic resurgence, largely due to the patronage of Roman Emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. This period saw the emergence of Neo-Attic production, characterized by decorative reliefs (marble wall panels), marble sarcophagi, and trapezophora (marble table supports).
Because Romans liked to co-exist with other cultures, they’ve concurred, they absorbed and built upon other societies to advance theirs. Romans were deeply impressed by Greek sculptural techniques and actively copied and collected Greek art. The purpose of art changed, however. Instead of glorifying gods, beautiful sculpture played a vital role in promoting the Roman rule. This included portraits of emperors, their families, the wealthy, and scholars. Wealthy Romans collected Greek sculptures as a sign of status and education. Some examples include the bronze equestrian statue of Octavian Augustus, discovered between Euboea and Hagios Eustratios, and the portrait of Antinous, Hadrian’s companion, who drowned in the Nile.
In this elaborately carved figure, the iconographical features of both Apollo and Dionysus, the wine-god, have been fused; the slipping himation and the sensual treatment of the flesh are typical of Dionysus, while the kithara and quiver characterize Apollo.
The eyes were originally inlaid with precious stones or vitrified pastes.
This is the Roman version of the 4th-century BCE Greek sculpture. The bronze helmet and drapery were restored by the sculptor Albacini, copying a bust of Athena now in the Vatican Museum.
While maintaining Greek techniques, Romans introduced several innovations and modifications:
- Increased use of marble quarried from newly conquered territories, with advanced transportation techniques for large marble blocks
- Development of advanced bronze casting techniques with improved metal joining methods
- Introduction of concrete, which allowed for larger and more complex sculptural bases
- More widespread use of realistic portrait sculptures depicting specific individuals, not idealized gods and athletes
- Integration of historical and political narratives into sculptures
- Creation of more elaborate narrative relief sculptures
- Development of equestrian statues to celebrate military achievements
- Continued integration of sculpture into architectural designs
- Complex surface finishing techniques
The Romans significantly contributed to our understanding of ancient Greek art by recreating sculptures from original bronze works and marble sculptures. Romans developed more efficient mass-production methods in established workshops that directly copied Greek style and techniques. Roman’s fascination with ancient Greek culture has allowed us to see otherwise lost art through their reproductions, preserving a crucial part of ancient Greek cultural heritage that would otherwise be severely limited.
The Roman army organization & its armor
The Roman Army is famous for its tactics and organization, which kept evolving depending on politics and battles. The unique feature of the Romans was to absorb, adapt, and improve the armor and tactics of their enemies. So the conquered cultures co-existed under Roman rule. The Romans did innovate in the organization of a professional army. Romans were also known for their advanced engineering skills.
So, who was the Roman soldier? The citizen was a young, fit man who worked the land in the 6th century BC. Although Romans introduced a small payment for the service in the 4th century, the soldiers had to pay for their own armor, receiving income from their business. Romans could start their service at the 17 years age of and retire late in life with another piece of land. In the 2nd century BC, Romans expanded their pay and hiring of new citizens, and generals began paying more money and land to their troops to maintain loyalty. (Based on writing at the British Museum).
Bronze greaves with the depiction of a goddess.
Bronze helmet of the Corinthian type (center), made in Apulia about 600 BC.
Bronze helmet of a Murmillo (right), Roman, 1st century AD,
Probably from Italy. The helmet of the Murmillo was heavy (3.5kg = approx 81b) and heavily protected, with a broad brim, angular crest, and visored front with two eye gratings. Above the brim of the helmet is a small bust of Hercules, the embodiment of bravery. When new, the helmet had a golden sheen and was
decorated with plumes.
The design of defensive armor (helmets, cuirasses and greaves) worn by the Greeks in southern Italy followed the types used on the Greek mainland and in turn influenced that worn by the Italic peoples.
From the middle of the seventh century the Greek infantry (hoplitai) fought in tightly massed ranks (phalanges). Each hoplite was equipped with a thrusting spear, sword, helmet, cuirass, greaves and round shield. Two of the early types of helmets were particularly popular in southern Italy, the Corinthian helmet, as the Greeks called it, and the Chalcidian, a modern name.
Bronze cuirasses with elaborately modelled muscles were greatly favored in southern Italy in the fourth century. They are also to be seen held by the deceased in representations of the sculptured funerary monuments (naiskoi) of Taranto. On exceptional examples the shoulder-pieces were elaborately decorated with relief figures. Greaves, which protected the shins, were also an essential part of hoplite armor. Similarly equipped heavy cavalry was equally very important in southern Italy, for there were
large plains in which it could be successfully deployed. (description from the British Museum)
Sculptures of this period are displayed at the museum in Athens:
Marble statue of Hermes, Height 1,71 m. found at Aigion, Peloponnese work of the Augustan period (27 BC-AD 14). In his right hand, he held a purse, and in his left the caduceus. The statue is a work of the Augustan period (27 BC-AD), inspired by Lysippean models of the 4th c. BC.
Marble statue of a sleeping Maenad, found at the Acropolis in Athens. The type is known as the reclining Hermaphrodite. The work expresses the Classicising trend of an Attic workshop. Length 1,36 m. Time of the emperor Hadrian (AD 117-138).
Marble portrait bust of Antinoos, from Patras, Peloponnese, AD 130-138, Thasian marble. Hadrian deified Antinoos after his death and erected numerous statues, busts, and portraits of him in various cities and sanctuaries throughout the Roman Empire.
Marble herm portrait of the kosmetes (magistrate) Sosistratos, from Athens AD 141/42, the stele, Height 1,94 m.
Part of the marble grave stele of Alexandra, found in the ancient cemetery of Kerameikos, Athens, Time of the emperor Hadrian (AD 117-138). Height 1,69 m. As a priestess of Isis, she is depicted in the dress and with the symbols of the goddess: the himation, on her breast with a characteristic knot, and the kados (ritual vase) in the left hand. The frequent representation of figures accompanied by Isis’s symbols on reliefs of Roman times attests to the wide dissemination of the cult of the Egyptian goddess in Greece at that time.
Marble statuette of Ephesian Artemis, 1st c. BC, Height 0,78 m.. Artemis was worshipped by the Greeks as the great goddess of nature and patron goddess of animals. Her dress is adorned by fertility symbols (28 breasts), figures of Nike, griffins, sphinxes, and bees. Lions sit on the goddess’s arms.
Bronze statue of the emperor Augustus (27 BC – AD 14), Height 1,23 m. The aging emperor is about to ride a horse. He’s dressed in a tunica with a vertical purple stripe and a fringed paludamentum decorated with a maeander pattern. The right hand shows an official greeting. On the bezel of his finger-ring a staff of divination (lituus) is engraved, symbolising the supreme religious office of Pontifex Maximus, assumed by Augustus in 12 BC.
Roman period at the National Archeological Museum in Athens: https://www.namuseum.gr/en/collection/romaiki-periodos/
Conclusion:
Masters such as Myron primarily focused on capturing dynamic movement, often in the context of athletic subjects, effectively utilizing the fluidity and tensile strength of bronze to achieve poses that conveyed a sense of arrested motion.
Phidias, on the other hand, aimed for an idealized representation of both human and divine forms. His approach was grounded in a deep understanding of anatomical structure, which he executed with meticulous attention to detail using a diverse range of available materials, including the chryselephantine technique and finely worked marble.
Polyclitus developed a comprehensive theoretical framework for achieving ideal human proportions, utilizing mathematical principles as the foundation for his art. His primary medium was bronze, and his subjects were often athletic figures, perfectly embodying the balance, beauty, and harmony he sought to represent.
The Late Classical period witnessed a shift towards more humanized and sensual portrayals of the divine, exemplified by the work of Praxiteles. His focus was on achieving natural poses, grace, and delicate forms, primarily working in marble to capture the soft contours and smooth surfaces that characterized his elegant style.
Scopas introduced a new dimension to the pursuit of realism by emphasizing the intense emotions in his marble figures. His work conveyed a strong sense of drama and pathos, moving beyond the more detached, idealized expressions seen in earlier sculpture.
Lysippus marked the transition into the Hellenistic era with his distinct focus on lifelike naturalism. His figures had slenderer proportions, 3D view, and individual character, predominantly working in bronze to achieve a sense of immediacy and engagement with the viewer.
The evolution of realistic sculpture in ancient Greece reveals a continuous artistic dialogue and the pursuit of excellence, where each generation of sculptors built upon the achievements and explorations of their predecessors. This progression demonstrates an artistic journey, moving from the initial attempts to capture the essence of motion by artists like Myron to the pursuit of idealized forms grounded in correct anatomical representation by Phidias and Polyclitus. The Late Classical period then saw a shift towards a more humanized and sensual representation of the divine with Praxiteles, followed by Scopas’s unusual exploration of intense feelings. Finally, Lysippus ushered in the Hellenistic era with his emphasis on lifelike naturalism and the portrayal of individual character. Most sculptors worked in specialized workshops, and apprentices would assist master sculptors. Techniques were closely guarded and passed down through generations of artists. Most sculptures were commissioned by wealthy patrons or for religious purposes. This continuous development highlights an artistic commitment to representing the divine nature through perfection in human form. The changing preferences in materials, from the prominence of bronze in the Early and High Classical periods to the greater utilization of marble in the Late Classical and Hellenistic eras, likely reflect a combination of factors. These could include advancements in sculpting techniques, such as improved methods for quarrying and carving marble, as well as shifting aesthetic ideals and a growing appreciation for the unique tactile and visual qualities offered by different materials.
Materials and Techniques in Detail: The Artist’s Craft of ancient Greek sculptors. How they assembled the pieces
Marble
As a material, marble found its use before bronze, and it was often used alongside other materials. Marble was a highly favored material in ancient Greek sculpture, prized for its fine grain and its capacity to be polished to a high sheen. These qualities allowed sculptors to achieve delicate details and exceptionally smooth surfaces, contributing to the realistic depiction of skin and drapery. Different varieties of marble, such as the close-grained and sparkling marble from Naxos, the rougher-grained and more translucent Parian marble, and the more opaque Pentelic marble that developed a honey color with age, were favored for their unique features. For larger marble sculptures, it was common practice to sculpt the figures in separate sections, such as the head, limbs, and torso, which were then joined together using dowels made of metal or stone. It appears that ancient Greek sculptors used different techniques to create their art, and I include video illustrations of marble carvings below. One is carving from a plain marble stone, and another method is actually making a clay model and then casting it.
Ancient Greeks and then Romans painted the marble in bright colors, dressed the figures in clothes and jewelry, floral garlands, and perfume to create a multidimensional experience to revere the gods in rituals like the one in Delphi.
Perfumed marble sculptures:
Recent research in archaeology is revealing a surprising aspect of ancient marble sculptures: they were often perfumed. This discovery challenges the modern perception of these artworks as purely visual objects. Ancient Greek and Roman statues were designed to engage multiple senses, not just sight. Perfuming statues, particularly those of deities and royalty, was a significant practice with religious and symbolic meaning. This practice helped to make the sculptures appear more lifelike and to honor the gods and goddesses they represented. The evidence comes from various sources: Writers like Cicero and Callimachus describe rituals involving perfumed statues. Inscriptions found at sites like the Sanctuary of Delos detail the ingredients and costs of perfumes used for statues of deities. Traces of beeswax have been found on statues like the portrait of Queen Berenice II, suggesting they underwent perfuming treatments. The discovery of perfume workshops in ancient sites also supports this practice.
Application: Ancient texts describe methods like ganosis, which involved coating statues with waxes and fragrant oils (such as olive oil and beeswax) to enhance their aroma and preserve their surface. Applying perfumed oils and waxes with sponges or by rubbing them in was also a practice known as kosmesis.
Scent: Common scents included those made from roses, beeswax, and olive oil. Dioscorides, a Greek physician, provided a recipe for myron rhodinon, a rose-scented perfume.
In summary, the archaeology of perfumed marble sculptures today reveals a richer, multisensory understanding of ancient Greek and Roman art and the rituals surrounding it.
Source: The Scent of Ancient Greco-Roman Sculpture by Cecilie Brons, Oxford Journal of Archeology.
Marble Sculpting Techniques:
The creation of marble sculptures relied heavily on carving techniques. Sculptors utilized a variety of tools, including chisels of different sizes and shapes, hammers to drive the chisels, and drills for creating detailed work. The techniques differed depending on the time period and scale.
While many sculptures appear monolithic, large-scale works were often assembled from multiple pieces. There’s still some debate about the exact assembly techniques used. Scholars rely on archaeological evidence, tool marks, and remaining fragments to piece together the construction methods. Some of the techniques included:
- Tenon and Mortise: This joinery technique involves creating a projecting peg (tenon) on one piece that fits into a corresponding carved recess (mortise) on another. They might have used dowels or pins for additional reinforcement.
- Metal Braces: Bronze clamps or pins could have been used to secure different pieces together, especially for sections with complex angles or under heavy stress.
- Wet-drapery Technique: For figures with flowing drapery, sculptors might have created the drapery folds in wet clay and then used these clay models to guide the sculpting of the marble pieces. After carving the individual sections, they would be assembled to form the final figure.
1. Two wedges, Greek, 6th-4th century BC, from the site of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, western Turkey. Wedges were used for splitting stone in a quarry or for reducing large blocks of stone on site.
2. Punch-chisel, Greek, about 350-340 BC, from the sanctuary of Athena Polias at Priene, western Turkey
Used for rough dressing of stone.
3. Pick-hammer, Greek or Roman. Said to be from a quarry on the island of Thasos, northern Greece
Fitted with a short handle, this is an effective tool for the rough shaping of blocks in the quarry.
4. Marble angle-molding with an Egyptian motif, Greek, about 535-500 BC From the second Temple of Apollo at Naucratis, Egypt. Sculpture and architecture were enhanced with added color. Here, traces of blue have been applied over a base of red.
6-8. Fragments of molding from the mausoleum at Halicarnassus, Greek, 350 BC
Wooden Mallet, Egyptian, 1300BC
The Stone-Carver:
- The stone-carver’s tools in ancient Greece were about the same as they are today. The work began at the quarry, where rough shapes emerged as trenches were cut around the stone blocks with wedges. Much lighter, the stone journeyed to the workshop next. Artists paid attention to the marble quality while selecting the stone, and typically quarried from places like Mount Pentelicus near Athens.
- To develop the figure, artists created sketches and clay models. Then, they’d transfer the line drawing onto the marble. Once the drawing (probably with the grid) was on the stone, they used it as a guide to carve out the drawing.
- Artists roughed out the stone with a metal point, struck by a wooden mallet, to chip away excess. A claw chisel refined the surface, and the flat chisel removed the marks. Tools: They used various chisels (pointed for rough shaping, flat for smoothing surfaces, and toothed for texture and detail) to rough out the basic shape. They also used hammers and abrasive stones. Smaller, more precise chisels were used for detailed work like facial features and muscle definition. There were compasses and measuring instruments like calipers used for precise measurement. Other instruments included punches for fine details and drills for making holes, and some details.
- To create the flowing drapery or architectural curves, craftsmen used a rounded chisel. For deep-fold carving, they used a bow drill. The process was incredibly time-consuming, often taking months or even years for a single sculpture to make.
- For marble’s final glow and smoothness, artists used a rasp or even emery to achieve a high polish of the sculpture.
- In ancient hands, sculptures came alive with color. Many ancient Greek sculptures were not left as plain white marble but were often painted in vibrant colors called ‘polychromies’. Paint might highlight a detail, pattern or cloak the entire form in vibrant hues. Even the “white” of flesh was often covered in wax or resin. “Polychromy” means “many colors” in Greek. You can read about the sculptures’ color in Ancient Greece here.
How ancient Greeks carved heads in antiquity: According to the Met, the head of a statue in antiquity (4th century BCE) was often carved separately from the body of the statue. The head was made with a convex tenon that would be set into a specially prepared cavity in the statue. The juncture of the head and the body was concealed by a line of drapery.
Bronze
Bronze model of a chariot wheel from the Temple of the Kabeiroi at Thebes, Greek, 5th-4th century BC (right). This was dedicated by Xenon Pyrrhippa to the Kabeiros and his son, presumably as a token of gratitude for a winning race. There is little known about the Kabeiros, as they were worshiped in cults as protectors of fertility and seafaring and had a connection to blacksmiths.
Bronze was another highly valued material in ancient Greek sculpture, prized for its strength and versatility. Its inherent durability and flexibility once molten made it particularly suitable for creating dynamic and delicate work, especially for capturing the illusion of movement. The lost-wax casting technique was the prevalent method for producing bronze statues. This process involved creating a model of the sculpture in wax, encasing it in clay to form a mold, melting out the wax, and then pouring molten bronze into the resulting cavity. For larger bronze figures, individual parts were cast separately and subsequently joined together, showcasing the incredible skill of ancient metalworkers. If you watch the videos of contemporary artists doing bronze casting, you’ll see how labor-intensive and difficult the process is.
Additionally, ancient Greeks sometimes incorporated inlaid eyes made of bone, crystal, or glass to enhance the lifelike appearance, and added accessories made of metal, like you see in the picture above, the Cleveland Apollo.
Bronze Casting Techniques:
c. 350–200 BCE
The Cleveland Apollo at the Cleveland Museum of Art is a rare example of a large-scale ancient bronze sculpture of such high quality. Lifelike hair, fingernails and inlaid copper lips and nipples show incredible artist’s skill and talent. Cast in hollow bronze sections using the indirect lost-wax technique, this Apollo is attributed to Praxiteles (Greek, c. 400–c. 330 BC). Bronze, copper, and stone inlay; 150 x 50.3 x 66.8 cm. According to the museum, the Cleveland Apollo is the only surviving large-scale bronze sculpture of its type, Apollo Sauroktonos (the Lizard-Slayer). You can read about the investigation of bronze casting methods here.
Bronze flat chisels originally fitted to wooden handles, Greek (left), Probably Roman, From Southern Italy,
Greek Bronze Age, From the island of Saria, Greece; Probably Greek, Said to be from Ephesus.
Bronze tools of the kind used by masons and stone-carvers in setting out their block (right)
Stylus for marking the surface, Greek Bronze Age, 1400-1200 BC, From Ialyssos, Rhodes, Greece.
Dividers, probably Roman, 1st century AD; Cat Bronzes, Roman, 1st-3rd century AD, from Ephesus, western Turkey.
Bronze casting method:
For bronze sculptures, the lost-wax casting process was fundamental. After casting, finishing techniques such as scraping, fine engraving, patina coloring, and polishing were employed to refine the surface and add further details.
- A clay core was first sculpted in the desired shape and wax was carefully applied over it. Once the details were completed, the wax model was disassembled into pieces to facilitate casting in bronze.
- Wax rods were attached to the exterior of each wax piece, and the interior was packed with clay.
- The sculpture was covered in clay, creating a mold, and the wax was melted out.
- Molten bronze was poured in through the channels- hollows left by the wax rods, melting the wax (hence “lost-wax”).
- Once cooled, the clay mold was broken from the exterior to reveal the bronze sculpture.
- Multiple bronze pieces were joined together by fusion welding or soldering techniques—heating the edges of the pieces and using more molten bronze to unite them. Polishing and patina application finished the work
Getty Museum has an excellent, simple, visual explanation of The Lost-Wax Casting Technique. A sculpture is molded in wax in multiple pieces, which is then melted away and replaced by molten metal.
Other Materials:
While marble and bronze were the most prominent materials, other materials also played a role in ancient Greek sculpture. Wood was likely used, particularly in earlier periods, although few examples have survived due to its perishable nature. For the creation of highly revered cult statues, the combination of gold and ivory, known as chryselephantine, was employed. Greeks also used terracotta, a type of fired clay, for crafting smaller figurines and numerous decorative vases. Greeks used limestone as well.
The Goldsmith and Silversmith
The oak wreath and belt were acquired in 1908 from a dealer who reported that they came from the same tomb, somewhere on the Dardanelles. Another gold oak wreath was discovered in a tomb in what was probably the same area, at Coban Tepe, near Pinarbasi on the north coast of Troy in March 1887. The tumulus contained a rectangular, stone-lined chamber in which were also found three embossed gold strips, myrtle sprigs. a bronze mirror, a bronze bowl, and an alabaster alabastron.
Each branch, made of sheet gold tubes, has six sprays with eight leaves and seven or eight acorns, as well as a cicada. Perhaps the most famous oak wreath is that from a tomb at Vergina, identified as the tomb of Philip II. Another comes from the nearby Prince’s tomb. A particularly fine example was discovered in a tumulus at Pergamon.
Such wreaths were regularly made to be worn in life, usually in religious processions, as those reported to have been made for Demosthenes by the goldsmith Pammenes, son of Pammenes of Erchia, who had a workshop near the Athenian Agora. Gold wreaths were also given to winners in musical contests at the Panathenaic Games in Athens, as well as money, at least by the end of the fifth century BC.
Highly refined gold jewelry was highly valued and in demand. A soft metal, gold was shaped by a variety of processes. Gold and silver were worked into jewelry in sheet form, as wire, or in cast sections. Artists often combined all three methods to create a single jewelry piece with soldering. They also embellished the surface with filigree or granulation designs.
Early work featured gold beaten into sheet metal with raised decoration (repoussé). The simplest repoussé consists of denting the surface with a blunt instrument. Other methods include stamping the gold with a punch or beating it into a mold. Another way of shaping sheet gold was to beat it over a core.
A model was first made in wood or bronze, and the gold was then worked over it.
Golden wire was common in ancient jewelry pieces. Craftsmen made it from thin blocks
of metal twisted and stretched to the diameter required and then rolled between plates of stone
or bronze. (Based on the description from the British Museum)
The Seal-stone Engraver:
A gemstone, carved with care, becomes a seal when pressed into soft clay or wax. Seal manufacture was the primary goal in ancient Greece, but they also shimmered as amulets, and others glowed as pure adornment. From Minoan culture through the Roman era, artisans shaped these stones. As Minoans used seals to label goods, seals helped with attribution in later years. Craftsmen chose vibrant, precious gems for their hues and stone strength. Most were etched in intaglio, designs sunk deep in the stone like a mold. Later, in Hellenistic and Roman times, cameos rose figures carved in relief. These stones, too hard to carve with simple tools, demanded a delicate balance of drills or tiny cutting wheels, spun by a bow. After dusting the surface with an abrasive powder, the drill’s grinding carved the art. Some gems, pierced, dangled as amulets or twirled in swivel rings. Some rings had gold settings.
Ancient Greek sculptors achieved their anatomical accuracy through several techniques:
- Greek Philosophers and mathematicians developed theoretical frameworks for ideal human proportions that showed harmony and beauty in everything. You can find out about their ideals in my article about ancient Athens. The athletic body represented heroism and divinity, showing character represented in gods and the ideal human form.
- Greeks made extensive studies of human anatomy via observation at athletic contests and gyms. Artists probably did a lot of life sketching and clay modeling of those athletes to gain a thorough understanding of human anatomy. Polykleitos created the “Canon of Proportions” for himself and others to create perfect, anatomically correct figures. Every classically trained artist goes through this rigorous period of anatomical study of the figure, drawing people from life in different poses and angles to gain knowledge and skill.
- Ancient Greek artists used precise measurement techniques and instruments, such as compasses, calipers, plumb lines, grids, and standard units in measurement.
A combination of these methods allowed artists to create idealized versions of human beings.
Conclusion: The choice of material played a crucial role in shaping the artistic possibilities and the ultimate aesthetic qualities of the sculptures. Marble, with its fine texture, allowed for the creation of delicate details and smooth, polished surfaces, contributing to the realistic rendering of skin and soft contours. I think marble has a beautiful surface and luminosity, perfect for the depiction of people. In contrast, bronze, with its inherent strength, enabled sculptors to explore dynamic movement in poses that would be hard to achieve in marble (because of its softness). However, bronze doesn’t have the same visual appeal as marble does. The bronze surface looks heavy and doesn’t imitate the skin’s luminosity. Perhaps ancient Greek artists used specific patinas to compensate for that. No doubt, marble is a very soft material, and sculptures broke off quite easily (because of this limitation, marble sculptures usually have support near the leg or arm), while the art made of bronze was incredibly durable and stood the test of time. The distinct properties of each material thus guided the artists’ creative processes, placement of pieces, and influenced the visual language of their art. In any case, each material the Greeks used required incredible talent and skill to create sculptures. Some art museums and institutions do extensive research of past techniques. Some academic research continues to uncover ancient methods. Advanced imaging like X-ray and CT scans reveals internal sculpture structures, and digital reconstruction allows detailed analysis of creation processes that let us understand ancient techniques today.
A list of museums and institutions that offer detailed insights into ancient Greek sculpture creation:
- The British Museum (www.britishmuseum.org)
- The Louvre Museum (www.louvre.fr/en)
- Archaeological Institute of America (www.archaeological.org)
- The Metropolitan Museum of Art (www.metmuseum.org) + Metropolitan Museum of Art YouTube Channel
- Perseus Digital Library (www.perseus.tufts.edu)
- Ancient History Encyclopedia (www.worldhistory.org)
- The Getty Museum (www.getty.edu) + The Getty Conservation Institute YouTube Channel
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Strasbourg art guide
Strasbourg is one of the most beautiful cities in old Europe I’ve traveled to thus far. This inspirational place offers a unique blend of German and French architecture that feels special. In this podcast episode I walk you through major art seeing in this town.
To read and see pictures of Strasbourg: https://veronicasart.com/strasbourg-unique-blend-of-french-and-german-architectural-influences/
Video: https://youtu.be/5Yz-w5TnFiE
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The Ultimate NYC Art Tour: The Met, MoMA, and Frick Collection in One Trip
For art lovers, few cities offer the kind of visual feast that New York does. But with so many world-class
museums spread across Manhattan, how do you make the most of a single, inspiration-filled day? This
curated guide maps out how to explore three of NYC’s most iconic art institutions—the Met, the
Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), and the Frick Collection—in one thoughtfully paced itinerary.
Whether you’re a seasoned collector, an art student, or simply someone who wants to be deeply moved
by creativity, this route blends timeless masterpieces, modern provocations, and intimate works of
genius.
Start at The Met – A Walk Through Global Art History
Begin your day at the Metropolitan Museum of Art on Fifth Avenue, ideally arriving right at opening
time. With over two million works spanning 5,000 years, The Met is vast—and wonderful. In my opinion, it’s one of top art museums in the world, and I can get lost there for two full days, walking through all its galleries studying art. This art museum allows artists to write, draw, or take notes with pencil inside the galleries. So you might see artists sketching throughout the museum. Moreover, the Met’s copyist program can let you paint from chosen masterpieces, which could be exciting to see at the gallery.
To make the most of your visit, many art lovers focus on just a few wings rather than trying to see it all at once. Of course, your visit must depend on your interests. The Met often organizes exceptional exhibitions around a single artist or art movement that are included in the general ticket. So you might be interested in a specific show rather than in permanent exhibitions. If you have more time, spend a day there. If timing is critical, consider these highlights:
- the Temple of Dendur in the Egyptian art section, beautifully staged with natural light;
- the Greek & Roman art gallery filled with exceptional sculptures;
- the European paintings wing, where Dutch Masters command quiet reverence;
- and the Arms and Armor exhibit, a perennial surprise even for repeat visitors.
The rooftop garden, when open, provides a unique view over Central Park and serves as a calming interlude before heading downtown. Stop by the café for a quick bite or espresso to refuel before the next leg of your tour.
General admission tickets are $30 for adults; $22 for seniors; $17 for students. To buy pay-what-you-wish tickets online, you must have a New York State billing address. Small backpacks are allowed but must be worn on your front or carried in your hand. Water is ok in a secure bottle. No other liquids are permitted. Open 10 am to 5pm with Fridays & Saturdays open till 9pm. Closed on Wednesdays! Address: 1000 5th Ave, New York.
MoMA – A Jolt of Modernism and Innovation
From Fifth Avenue, head to Midtown and step into the Museum of Modern Art. MoMA doesn’t just
house modern art—it energizes and reframes it. A visit here challenges assumptions and often creates
memorable moments of discovery. Booking a timed-entry ticket in advance helps you navigate this
popular museum more efficiently.
Start on the fifth floor—many visitors do—where you’ll find Van Gogh’s “The Starry Night,” Warhol’s
pop provocations, and the large, emotive fields of Rothko. As you move downward, each level unfolds
with purpose: Picasso’s fractured faces, Dali’s dreamy distortions, and immersive media installations
that stretch the very concept of “art.”
The sculpture garden is a favorite reset spot, while Café 2 provides a calm place to rest and recharge. By
the time you leave MoMA, the shift from The Met’s historical vastness to MoMA’s sharp focus feels like
a meaningful narrative arc.
Personally, I’m not a fan of modernism and I hold little affinity to huge spaces taken by gigantic canvases, media installations, and metal debris, but if you are a fan of these art styles, plan your visit by purchasing tickets online. MoMA is open until 5:30 p.m. daily and 8:30 p.m. on Fridays. Adult ticket is $30. Free tickets for selected colleges, military, etc.
Frick Madison – A Boutique Museum Experience
After MoMA, take a moment to slow the pace. Frick Madison, the temporary home of the Frick
Collection, offers the perfect setting for a reflective conclusion. Tucked away in a modernist building,
this museum feels more like a secret than a destination. It’s smaller, quieter, and elegantly arranged,
allowing each piece room to breathe and speak on its own terms. The art museum is a gem for artists, art collectors, and art enthusiasts because it shows beautiful, classical art with some famous artists like Rembrandt, Constable, Turner, Titian, Veronese, Bellini, Gainsborough and many more!
Inside, you’ll find yourself drawn into intimate encounters with Vermeer’s light, Goya’s bold contrasts,
and Whistler’s restrained elegance. Unlike the overwhelming scale of earlier stops, the Frick delivers
focus and restraint. Each room is curated with care, designed to make you linger longer, not rush to the
next thing.
The absence of crowds and the subtle presentation style provide visitors with a rare opportunity to
engage with art in near silence. Whether you’re listening to an audio guide or simply standing before a
single portrait for several minutes, the experience feels personal. It’s the kind of ending that doesn’t
wrap things up neatly, but rather leaves you with questions, reflections, and the quiet pleasure of seeing
more by slowing down.
Advance timed tickets are required to buy online unless you’re a member of this museum. Adult is $30 but the art museum offers Wednesdays for pay-what-you-wish admission from 2 to 6 p.m. Starting June 23, the museum will be open Mondays from 11 a.m. to 6 p.m. The Frick collection is located at 1 East 70th Street in New York.
Art Breaks & Planning Tips: Make the Most of the Day
Even the most passionate art lover needs a breather. These pauses between galleries often become
their own kind of memory. A quiet walk through Central Park, a hidden bookstore near Midtown, or a
slow moment with a latte on a museum terrace can refresh your eyes and your perspective. In a city
that moves quickly, these small resets let you absorb more deeply—and often help you connect dots
between eras, artists, and styles.
That said, thoughtful planning can elevate your entire art day from a series of museum visits into a rich,
cohesive experience. Here are a few practical strategies to keep your pace balanced and your attention
sharp:
Book tickets ahead—especially for MoMA and The Met’s timed entry slots.
Dress with purpose. Art is an all-day endeavor, and you’ll want shoes that go the distance.
Use breaks wisely—every museum has at least one café worth pausing in.
Don’t overpack your schedule. These three museums alone offer enough inspiration for days.
Mind bag policies. Keeping things light helps you move through security and exhibits more
easily.
With these insights in mind, you can shape a day that’s full without feeling rushed, personal without
being overly planned. The rhythm you create between seeing, pausing, and moving on becomes part of
the experience itself.
Getting Around: From Art to Art with Ease
In a city where timing is everything, having dependable transportation can make the difference between
a rushed outing and a well-paced cultural experience. Pre-arranged car services provide a simple and
quiet way to move between destinations while giving you a few minutes to rest. If you’re flying in,
arranging a JFK limo service in advance sets a calm, prepared tone from the moment you land. Between
stops, that quiet ride becomes more than a convenience—it’s a breather between galleries, a space to
process.
One City, Three Museums, Endless Inspiration
Experiencing The Met, MoMA, and the Frick Collection in one day isn’t just possible—it’s powerful. It’s a
curated encounter with centuries of human expression, all within the span of a few city blocks. This kind
of day becomes a story you carry, a memory shaped not just by art, but by how you moved through it.
And for many, it’s not just the art that stays with them—but the feeling of having paused long enough to
truly see it.
To continue exploring the best art museums in the world:
The best art in the Louvre art museum
What’s inside the Louvre? I take you on a virtual tour of the best art museum in the world.
To read the article and see art: https://veronicasart.com/the-most-beautiful-art-in-the-louvre-from-sculpture-to-painting-to-ancient-cultures-of-egypt-assyria-and-greece/
Video: https://youtu.be/5EkpVRnBkqg
Subscribe & rate this podcast on Spotify and Apple | Show your support for the podcast: here | Host: Veronica Winters, MFA | veronicasart.com
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Zurich: A Vivid Canvas of History, Urban Art, and the Natural World
If you’ve traveled a lot across Europe, Zurich in Switzerland might not be the most captivating city to explore in terms of ancient art and architecture. However, this city does have an unusual cityscape and historic charm that may be of interest to you. Its unique character arises from a harmonious blend of urban sophistication and the genuine natural beauty of the clear water of Lake Zurich and the turquoise sparkle of the Limmat River, creating a beautiful landscape that appeals to a discerning eye. Located in Switzerland, Zurich is a global center for banks and finance, so it’s both a pricey and wealthy city to explore.
Unfortunately, I lost most of my video and photo files traveling back from Europe, but I still have a few to show you the highlights of the city.
Key dates:
| Date/Period | Event/Figure | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| 853 AD | Founding of Fraumünster by Louis the German | Established an influential religious institution for aristocratic women. |
| c. 1100-1220 | Construction of Grossmünster | Iconic Romanesque church and later center of the Reformation. |
| 1336 | Rudolf Brun becomes first mayor of Zurich | Marked a shift in power towards guilds. |
| 1519 | Huldrych Zwingli becomes pastor of Grossmünster | Beginning of the Swiss-German Reformation in Zurich. |
| 1787 | Founding of the Zürcher Kunstgesellschaft | Led to the establishment of the Kunsthaus Zürich. |
| 1891 | Opening of Zurich Opera House | Established a major cultural institution for opera and ballet. |
| 1898 | Opening of the National Museum Zurich | Established a key institution for preserving and showcasing Swiss history and culture. |
| 1916 | Founding of Cabaret Voltaire | Birthplace of the Dada art movement. |
| 1970 | Installation of Chagall windows in Fraumünster | Significant addition of modern art to a historic church. |
| 2016 | Opening of FIFA World Football Museum | Establishment of a major museum dedicated to football history and culture. |
| 2021 | Opening of Kunsthaus Zürich extension by David Chipperfield | Significant expansion of Switzerland’s largest art museum. |
Major Sightseeing Attractions: Altstadt (Old Town)
The Grossmünster: the reformed church
The Grossmünster is the main attraction in Zurich, standing tall above other buildings on the bank of the river. Its architecture is predominantly Romanesque, evident in this church’s thick walls, the semi-circular arches of arcades, sturdy structural pillars, and huge twin towers. These towers, piercing the skyline, have become the city’s most prominent landmark. If you climb the towers, you’ll see panoramic views of the city and the distant Alps. Do it close to sunset to capture the evening colors. As a tourist, check the working hours of the church too because of its scheduled renovations between 2025 and 2029.
Construction of the present structure commenced around 1100, with its inauguration taking place in approximately 1220. The Grossmünster origins can be traced back to a Carolingian church, possibly commissioned by Charlemagne around 810 CE. The edifice was erected on the site of an earlier Carolingian church. Within the church and its cloister, Romanesque capitals, often featuring grotesque carvings, offer glimpses into medieval art styles of the region. Later, the church underwent further architectural evolution, with the addition of neo-Gothic tops to its towers, completed in 1787. This followed a fire in 1763 that had destroyed the original wooden steeples. The church’s construction utilized a local material, Bollinger Sandstein.
The foundation for the two towers seen today was built in the 18th century by Johann Vögeli and Johannes Haggenmiller. One of the twin towers, the Karlsturm, features a viewing platform accessible by climbing 187 steps, rewarding visitors with sweeping panoramic views of the Old Town and Lake Zurich.
Beneath the church lies the Romanesque crypt, dating back to the 11th and 13th centuries, the largest of its kind in Switzerland. This crypt houses a 15th-century statue of Charlemagne. Legend recounts that Charlemagne himself discovered the graves of Felix and Regula, Zurich’s patron saints, here. The church became the place where Huldrych Zwingli initiated the Swiss-German Reformation in 1520. His successor, Heinrich Bullinger, continued these pivotal reforms. Throughout the Middle Ages, the Grossmünster functioned as a monastery church, constantly vying for prominence with the Fraumünster across the Limmat River. The theological school, once attached to the abbey, eventually formed the nucleus of Zurich University.
Culturally, the Grossmünster is a symbol of Reformed Zurich. The Reformation, which began here, profoundly impacted art and architecture in Protestant churches across Switzerland, leading to the removal of religious decorations and a focus on the simplicity of plain walls. Therefore, the Grossmünster looks reserved in its artistic decorum, and this art style is not my favorite as I gravitate towards baroque and classical art. Its art elements include abstract stained-glass windows designed by Augusto Giacometti, added in 1932, a precursor to abstract art. In 2009, the church added modern stained glass created by the renowned German artist, Sigmar Polke, featuring vivid agate designs and depictions of the Old Testament figures. The ornate bronze doors, created by Otto Münch in 1935 and 1950, depict scenes from Swiss history and the Reformation. There is a beautiful organ inside the church, decorated with little golden angel figures.
The Fraumünster Church
On the opposite bank of the Limmat River stands the Fraumünster Church, another historic landmark of Zurich with its distinct turquoise spire. While its current architectural style is predominantly Gothic, the church was originally built in the Romanesque style starting from the mid-9th century. The history of the Fraumünster dates back to 853 AD when it was founded by King Louis the German for his daughter Hildegard, who became the first abbess. It served as a Benedictine convent for aristocratic women from across Europe, enjoying royal patronage, including the right to mint coins.
The Romanesque choir dates back to 1250. The church’s slender blue-green copper spire was added fairly late, in 1732. Beneath the choir lies a cool crypt dating back to the 9th century that reveals archaeological remnants, including ancient Roman walls, and displays the history of the Reformation. During the Reformation, the abbey was dissolved in 1524, marking a significant shift in its role and ownership, with control passing to the city of Zurich. The Fraumünster houses the largest organ in the Canton of Zurich, featuring 5793 pipes, and the church also hosts various concerts and events throughout the year, taking advantage of the excellent acoustics provided by its grand organ.
In the north transept, a significant stained glass window titled “The Heavenly Paradise” was created by Augusto Giacometti in 1945. Giacometti’s artistic approach was influenced by Art Nouveau and Symbolism, and he is considered a pioneer of abstract art. The church also features a cycle of frescoes by Paul Bodmer in the Romanesque choir and cloister, illustrating the legend of the monastery’s founding and the stories of Zurich’s patron saints, Felix and Regula.
The Lindenhof
The Lindenhof offers a serene escape and panoramic views of the city you cannot miss, my friend. If you want to escape the busy streets of the old town and tip your toes into nature, this long road along the riverbank brings picture-perfect views of the Old Town, the Limmat River, Lake Zurich, and the Alps for your camera. I enjoyed walking along the shore looking at trees, architecture and people. The Lindenhof’s significance dates back to Roman times when it served as a strategic fortification around 15 BC. Subtle remnants of a Roman fortress can still be seen, including sections of the walls and a 2nd-century gravestone, a copy of which is embedded in the Lindenhof wall. In the 9th century, it was the site of a Carolingian royal palace. The hill is also associated with the legendary women’s march in 1292, where Zurich women, disguised as soldiers, are said to have defended the city.
A popular spot for both locals and tourists today, the Lindenhof has served as an inspiration for artists, with its scenic views frequently captured in paintings. You can walk under a shade of mature linden trees to stop by the Hedwig fountain of 1688 that commemorates the legendary siege of Zurich. It’s a peaceful park for many people to relax and enjoy summer.
Niederdorf & Giacometti Murals
Don’t skip the murals! Tucked away on the right bank of the Limmat River, Niederdorf has formed a charming and historically rich part of Zurich’s Old Town since the medieval times. Known affectionately by locals as “Dörfli,” it exudes a medieval charm with its oriel windows, narrow cobblestone alleyways, and picturesque courtyards. This pedestrian quarter is full of historical and cultural landmarks, with well-preserved buildings that narrate Zurich’s heritage. As a medieval trade city, Niederdorf developed organically, with buildings constructed adjacently.
Niederdorf holds a significant place in art history as the birthplace of the Dada movement, which was founded at the Cabaret Voltaire in 1916. Today, Niederdorf continues to foster artistic expression with its numerous art galleries and unique shops, contributing to its bohemian and creative atmosphere. Half-geometric, half-organic red and ochre splashes of color, the Giacometti Murals at the Uraniastrasse Police Station are also located in Niederdorf, showcasing the work of the renowned Swiss artist. He won the competition to brighten up the space, and the murals are beautiful and worth your visit.
Niederdorf is a popular promenade for both locals and tourists. It is known for its lively nightlife, with numerous restaurants, cafes, and bars. As a pedestrian zone, it offers a unique charm, blending shopping, dining, and cultural experiences. Niederdorf also hosts various festivals and events, contributing to Zurich’s dynamic cultural scene.
Cabaret Voltaire: the birthplace of the Dada art movement
Cabaret Voltaire, located in Zurich’s Niederdorf quarter at Spiegelgasse 1, holds immense historical significance as the birthplace of the Dada art movement. The building itself dates back to the 14th century. Today, it functions as a museum, bar, and cultural space, open to the public. It features a historical hall and a vaulted cellar that host exhibitions, as well as the Dada Library on the second floor.
The Cabaret Voltaire was founded on February 5, 1916, by Hugo Ball and Emmy Hennings, serving as a meeting place for artists and writers during World War I. It became the epicenter of the Dada movement, which challenged established artistic norms through nonsensical and irrational expressions. The cabaret closed in the summer of 1916 but experienced a revival in the 21st century. Following a period of disrepair and a brief squat by neo-Dada artists, it reopened in 2004.
St. Peter Church
St. Peter Church, located in the heart of Zurich’s Old Town next to Lindenhof hill, holds the distinction of being the city’s oldest parish church, with origins possibly dating back to the 8th century. It is also the only Baroque church in Zurich. A prominent feature is its clock tower, which boasts the largest church clock face in Europe, with a diameter of 8.7 meters. The tower was used as a fire lookout point until 1911. Five bells, dating back to 1880, reside in the tower. The church’s nave was rebuilt in the Gothic style in 1460, and the current building was consecrated in 1706.
Artistically, this church has an unusual combination of art styles. St. Peter Church features five stained glass windows created by Augusto Giacometti in 1930. The choir contains frescoes dating back to the Middle Ages. The church also houses an organ with 53 stops, crystal chandeliers, white stucco walls and ceilings, and red stone columns.
Historically, the site of St. Peter’s Church was once a Roman temple dedicated to Jupiter. The church belonged to Holy Roman Emperor Henry III in its early years. Rudolf Brun, Zurich’s first mayor, was buried here in 1360. Leo Jud, the first reformed pastor, also served at St. Peter, as did Johann Caspar Lavater from 1778 to 1801. St. Peter church overlooks the river and you can’t pass it by without seeing its clock face and spear.
The Lindt Chocolate Factory
This is an incredibly crowded and fun place to visit if you are in Zurich. You either use a public bus or Uber to get to the Lindt chocolate factory and museum. All sold tickets are timed to get into the factory’s tour, but there’s plenty to do inside the building waiting for your entry time. My recommendation is to buy their tickets online because the get sold out quickly.
My personal opinion, the tour itself isn’t great. It was crowded and exhibits themselves were too few and in between. You basically walk through several rooms where they tell you about the history of chocolate making. They give you many chocolate samples and you can taste the chocolate right from the chocolate fountains of white, dark and milk chocolates.
"Filled chocolates are still extremely rare. They were expensive at the end of the 19th century. Therefore, only small packages with a maximum of four pieces were available. The high-quality chocolates were sold in carefully designed boxes that could be re-used as jewelry boxes after the chocolates were eaten." Bonbonnière, Switzerland, 19th century. Lender: Lindt & Sprüngli AG, Kilchberg
I think the most exciting part is their gift shop, which is separate from their tour, of course. This is where you can experience death by chocolate, depending on the size of your pocketbook. But in all seriousness, they made it super fun with shopping carts filled with candy displays. You can really feel like a kid walking among the colorful stands with shiny wrappers of the Lindt chocolates in luxury boxes, open-stock, etc.
Bahnhofstrasse
Bahnhofstrasse, Zurich’s renowned shopping boulevard, is an elegant avenue lined with high-end boutiques, prestigious Swiss banks, restaurants, and luxury jewelers. It has earned its reputation as one of the world’s most exclusive and expensive shopping destinations. It serves as a central shopping boulevard, connecting the main train station with the lake and offering a vibrant pedestrian experience. This iconic street came into existence in the mid-19th century, specifically between 1864 and 1877, following the demolition of Zurich’s city fortifications and the subsequent filling of the former moat known as Fröschengraben. Initially, it served as an access road to the city’s railway station. Over time, Bahnhofstrasse evolved into a prestigious address, attracting wealthy residents and establishing itself as a prominent center for banking and finance, with headquarters of major Swiss banks like UBS located along the street. The architecture along Bahnhofstrasse showcases a mix of styles, with many buildings dating back to the 19th century alongside more contemporary structures, including department stores and office buildings. The boulevard stretches from Zurich’s main train station to Bürkliplatz on the shores of Lake Zurich.
While primarily known for its commercial activity, Bahnhofstrasse incorporates public art into its urban landscape. Such an example is an outcry of modernity, Max Bill’s “Pavillon-Skulptur,” a walk-in granite sculpture created in 1983, stands near Paradeplatz. The street is also home to several art galleries, including Opera Gallery Zürich and Hauser & Wirth Zurich, which showcase contemporary and modern art. Historically, the street housed Moderne Galerie, one of Switzerland’s earliest galleries specializing in modern art in the early 20th century. Throughout the year, the street features public art installations, and during the Christmas season, it is illuminated by the enchanting “Lucy” light show.
Lake Zurich
The architecture along the lake Zurich shores presents a blend of contemporary residential designs and modernist structures like the Pavillon Le Corbusier (a modern art museum). The Pavillon Le Corbusier, completed in 1967, was constructed entirely of glass and steel. Other architectural highlights include the distinct horseshoe-shaped headquarters of Swarovski and Flexhouse, a residence with an undulating design of glass and aluminum shingles.
This lake is a major attraction for people who love nature, boats, swimming, walking, cycling, and serene views. Historically, Lake Zurich’s basin and shoreline were formed by glacial activity during the Ice Age. The lake’s shores were also the site of prehistoric pile dwellings. Today, the lake is a very popular spot among the locals to eat, sunbathe, and relax next to the beautiful blue water.
The National Museum Zurich
The National Museum Zurich resembles a fairytale castle with its pointed gables and turrets. Designed by Gustav Gull, it opened in 1898, showcasing a historicist style inspired by French Renaissance city chateaus. The building features numerous towers, courtyards, and a picturesque park. In 2016, a modern, sculptural extension was designed and added by Christ & Gantenbein. The new wing’s expressive roofline complements the original building’s character.
In my opinion, it’s not the most interesting museum I’ve visited in Europe, but it’s still worthwhile your visit because the National Museum houses the largest collection of cultural and historical artifacts in Switzerland, encompassing over 870,000 objects that span from prehistory to the present day.
Its collection is organized into 14 diverse groups, including archaeology, weaponry, textiles, fine art, and objects representing everyday life throughout Swiss history.
The museum features a rich display of Gothic art, chivalric artifacts, liturgical wooden sculptures, panel paintings, and an extensive collection of stained glass, considered the largest and most significant in the world. Visitors can also explore a dedicated Collection Gallery showcasing Swiss furnishings from different periods.
Stoves: I found the rooms made of wood from 1566 to be unique and very interesting artistically. These rooms are made of rich wood carvings, inlays, and elegant designs. Elaborate, colorful tiled stoves decorate these rooms.
As per the museum’s description, “Wood-burning, titled stoves were not only a source of heat, but also prestigious objects that embellished the living rooms of wealthy households. The monochromatic relief tiles of the 14th and 15th centuries gradually gave way to colorful tableaux in the 16th and 18th centuries. Whites dominated the designs created after 1800.
Pins: There is a beautiful display of female jewelry inside the museum. For example, you can find a big hair piece, a Rose hairpin used by unmarried women to secure braids in place. Made by Franz Leonz Beul
(1780-1856), The rose pin is a filigree on silver with sparkling rhinestones.
using a complicated forging process. In around 1510, the sword acquired a hilt, which extended it considerably. These swords, often two-handed, are representative of the era and the types of weaponry used by the Landsknecht mercenary soldiers during the 16th century.
Kunsthaus Zürich
The Kunsthaus Zürich was established in 1787 by the Zürcher Kunstgesellschaft, a group of artists and art enthusiasts. The society began collecting art in 1794. The museum moved to its current location in 1910 and has expanded over the years to accommodate its growing collection.
Kunsthaus Zürich, the largest art museum in Switzerland, offers an expansive journey through art history. The original museum building, designed by Karl Moser and Robert Curjel opened in 1910. It features well-preserved Moser interiors in the Neo-Grec Secession style. Over the years, the museum has undergone several expansions, culminating in a significant addition designed by David Chipperfield Architects Berlin, which opened in 2021. Chipperfield’s extension is a modern-era rectangular structure clad in sandstone, emphasizing urban space and creating new public areas. An underground passage connects the new building with the original Moser building.
The Kunsthaus collection: houses one of Switzerland’s most important art collections, encompassing around 4,000 paintings and sculptures, as well as 95,000 prints and drawings, spanning from the Middle Ages to contemporary works.
The museum houses 17th-century Dutch art by Rembrandt, Rubens, and van Ruisdael. The Italian Baroque is represented by the paintings of Claude Lorrain and Domenichino. There are some Venetian paintings (Tiepolo to Guardi). One of the most beautiful classical paintings in the museum’s collection is Cupid & Psyche by Angelica Kauffmann, 1792. The 19th-century art of Fuselli depicts the same subject. Jacob van Ruisdael’s The Bleachers of Haarlem, 1670s, is a beautiful landscape.
It boasts the most significant museum collection of works by Alberto Giacometti and the largest assembly of paintings by Edvard Munch outside of Norway. The collection also features examples of Impressionism and Modernism by artists such as Monet, Van Gogh, Picasso, and Chagall. The art museum holds the world’s largest collection of objects from the Dada movement, which was founded in Zurich in 1916. The museum also showcases Pop Art by Warhol and Lichtenstein, as well as contemporary art by artists like Fischli/Weiss, Pipilotti Rist, Cy Twombly, Joseph Beuys, and Georg Baselitz. Significant private collections, including the Emil Bührle Collection, which focuses on French Impressionism and Post-Impressionism, and the Gabriele and Werner Merzbacher Collection, featuring Fauvist and Expressionist works, are also housed here. Art extends beyond the museum walls with public installations in front of the museum, such as Rodin’s “Gates of Hell” and Pipilotti Rist’s “Tastende Lichter” located nearby.
Uetliberg
Uetliberg, often referred to as Zurich’s “very own mountain,” offers a natural contrast to the city’s urban attractions. Rising to 2,858 feet above the sea level, it provides panoramic views of Zurich, Lake Zurich, and the distant Alps. Architectural elements on Uetliberg include a rebuilt lookout tower, offering enhanced perspectives, and the Uetliberg TV tower, standing at 186 meters. The Hotel Uto Kulm, located at the summit, provides accommodation and dining options with stunning views. The Uetliberg railway station makes the mountain easily accessible from the city.
Historically, Uetliberg was the site of an important Iron Age fortification (Oppidum Uetliberg) dating back to around 500 BC. Evidence suggests a Roman presence as well. A medieval castle, Uotelenburg, once stood near the summit. The Uetliberg railway was built in 1874, opening the area for easier access.
Uetliberg is a popular recreational area for Zurich residents and visitors, offering opportunities for hiking, mountain biking, paragliding, and sledding. It is particularly popular in November as its summit often rises above the city’s fog. The “Planet Trail” walk offers an educational and scenic experience.
The Zurich Opera House
The Zurich Opera House, situated at Sechseläutenplatz, is a cultural gem renowned for its performances. Designed by Viennese architects Fellner & Helmer, it opened in 1891. Created in a neo-Baroque style, the Zurich Opera House reminds me of a white wedding cake. The ornate facade, crafted from white and grey stone, features classical busts of prominent composers like Weber, Wagner, and Mozart. The auditorium, built in the neo-rococo style, can seat approximately 1100-1200 patrons. An extension was added on Uto-Quai in 1984, and a temporary bridging structure was completed in 2024.
As a leading institution for performing arts, the Opera House is home to the Zurich Opera, Ballett Zürich, and Philharmonia Zürich. It delights audiences with masterpieces from the worlds of opera, ballet, and classical music. The Opera House commissions posters for its performances, some of which are designed by notable artists like K. Domenic Geissbühler.
Culturally, the Zurich Opera House is a gem and a symbol of the city’s rich artistic heritage. It is considered one of the most productive and successful opera houses in Europe, hosting numerous opera performances, ballet productions, concerts, and events for children annually. The Opera House has received international recognition, including being named “Opera Company of the Year” at the International Opera Awards.
The Rietberg Museum of non-European art
The Rietberg Museum was founded in 1952 to showcase the renowned collection of non-European art assembled by Baron Eduard von der Heydt. Villa Wesendonck, now the museum’s main building, was once a cultural hub frequented by the composer Richard Wagner. The estate was previously owned by the Rieter family. The museum expanded with the opening of Villa Schönberg in 1978 and the “Smaragd” extension in 2007.
The Rietberg Museum, nestled in the beautiful Rieterpark, comprises three 19th-century villas—Villa Wesendonck, Villa Schönberg, and Rieter Park-Villa—along with a coach house. A modern underground extension, known as “Smaragd,” featuring a glass pavilion, was added in 2007, designed by Alfred Grazioli and Adolf Krischanitz. Villa Wesendonck, the main building, was constructed in the neo-classical style in 1857, while Villa Schönberg exhibits an English country house style with Gothic elements.
The Rietberg Museum’s art collection encompasses around 32,600 objects and 49,000 photographs representing the arts and cultures of Asia, Africa, the Americas, Near and Middle East, and Oceania. The collection includes both traditional and contemporary works with some Chinese porcelain, Indian miniature paintings from the Alice Boner Collection, and Himalayan Buddhist art from the Berti Aschmann collection. The museum also houses the significant Himmelheber Archive, focusing on African art.
The Near & Middle East art starts with 232 Luristan bronzes dated to 3000–1000 BC. Islamic ceramics, ancient Persian manuscript illumination, lacquer painting, and Egyptian textile collection. Japanese art is presented with woodblock prints, carved figures, and much more. The golden figure sculptures from the Himalayan region are exceptional. The examples are from Tibet, 15th c., Fire-gilt copper alloy with inlaid semi-precious stones. You can see the finest examples of this collection here.
Situated within a beautiful park, the museum offers a tranquil environment for appreciating global art and culture.
The FIFA World Football Museum
For all football fans out there, the FIFA World Football Museum in Zurich offers a modern perspective on the art and culture surrounding the world’s most popular sport. The museum occupies a renovated building in the Zürich Enge district, near the train station. The original building, “Haus zur Enge,” was an architectural icon of the 1970s, designed by Werner Stücheli. The renovation, undertaken by SAM Architekten + Partner, maintained the building’s basic form while adding necessary modern elements and an upward extension. The resulting structure features a horizontally layered design.
The FIFA Museum provides an interactive experience for visitors of all ages, showcasing over 1,000 exclusive exhibits and memorabilia from FIFA World Cups. A highlight of the collection is the original FIFA World Cup Trophy. The museum also displays national soccer shirts from all FIFA member associations. Interactive and multimedia installations, including a giant football pinball machine, offer engaging experiences. The museum hosts special exhibitions, such as “Football: Designing the Beautiful Game” and “211 Cultures. One Game,” exploring the broader cultural context of football.
As you can see Zurich’s attractions will depend on your interests. If you’re short on time, visit the Old Town first and then consider other places like the lake, one of the museums, or a chocolate factory to be your destination. Zurich has excellent public transportation, and Uber may be pricey, depending on the time of the day.
While you’re planning your trip, check out my art:
Further reading:
The most beautiful art in the Louvre from sculpture to painting to ancient cultures of Egypt, Assyria, and Greece
We spent two full days in the Louvre or about 15 hours, walking its lavish interior space filled with priceless art, jewelry, ancient sculpture, and furniture. The length of this famous art museum is remarkable. The Louvre covers about 60,600 square meters. Just imagine walking 652,000 square feet!
The Louvre’s art collection is even more impressive as this top art museum houses over 35,000 works of art, spanning from ancient Egypt to 19th-century art.
Yes, the Louvre is most famous for the Mona Lisa, Venus de Milo, Michelangelo’s Dying Slave, Canova’s sculptures, David’s paintings, and the Winged Victory of Samothrace. However, the palace displays so many other incredible pieces of art that I’d stay there for weeks to sketch and paint from this famous art if I could.
Video:
- 00:00 Introduction to the Louvre Museum & its collection history
- 05:50 The Napoleon III Apartments
- 08:02 The Apollo gallery & French Crown Jewels
- 11:31 Ancient Egypt art collection
- 14:15 The Palace of Sargon, Babylon & the Assyrian art
- 16:42 Ancient Greco-Roman Art Collection
- 19:36 The Michelangelo Gallery & classical art
- 21: 42 Famous Paintings of the Louvre
- 26:54 Islamic art collection
- 29:41 The Sennelier Art Supply Store
- 30:33 Views of Paris
History of the Louvre as a Royal Palace:
Let’s look at the history of the Louvre Palace before it became a museum. Construction began on a fortified castle on the right bank of the Seine River in Paris in the 12th century. In the 16th Century, King Francis I (1515-1547) transformed the castle into a luxurious royal residence, inspired by Italian Renaissance architecture. The king hired Leonardo to be his court artist in the last decade of the artist’s life and commissioned the Mona Lisa, among other pieces. (The famous Italian artist da Vinci passed away in France, and that’s why the Mona Lisa is in the Louvre, not Italy). When Louis XIV moved the royal court to Versailles in the 17th century, he left the Louvre as a royal palace for occasional visits and storage of art collections.
During the French Revolution in 1793, the Louvre transformed into an art museum as it was declared a “museum of the people.” In the 19th Century, Napoleon Bonaparte expanded the Louvre’s collection through conquests and purchases, making it one of the world’s largest and most prestigious art museums. Emperor of France from 1800 to 1814, made significant expansions of the art collections. A century later, the Louvre underwent extensive renovations and expansions under Georges-Henri Rivière, director of the Louvre from 1887 to 1908. The construction of the famous glass pyramid by architect I.M. Pei happened in 1989. https://www.louvre.fr/en/explore/the-palace
The Louvre consists of several architectural styles present in the museum:
The earliest parts of the Louvre were constructed in the Gothic style (12th-16th centuries) with pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and stained glass windows. The oldest section of the museum, known as the “Old Louvre,” exhibits Gothic architectural elements.
King Francis I’s reign marked a significant shift toward the Renaissance style, inspired by Italian architecture in the 16th-17th centuries. The Renaissance portion of the Louvre features symmetrical facades, columns, and ornamentation. (Example: The Cour Napoléon, a central courtyard, showcases Renaissance architecture.)
The 18th century saw a revival of classical architecture, characterized by symmetry, proportion, and the use of Greek and Roman motifs, which is called Neoclassical style. ( Example: The Denon Wing, one of the main wings of the museum, is a prominent example of neoclassical architecture).
Modern Architecture of the 20th century includes I.M. Pei’s Glass Pyramid. Designed by Chinese-American architect I.M. Pei, looks very different from the older sections of the museum.
Mansard Roofs: A French Architectural Innovation
The roofs of the Louvre are a combination of several architectural styles. In some of the older parts of the Louvre, you might find slate roofs, which were common in medieval and Renaissance architecture. These roofs often have a steep pitch and are covered in dark, natural slate tiles. The newer sections of the Louvre, especially those built in the neoclassical style, often feature mansard roofs. These French roofs have a double-sloped design, with a steeper lower slope and a flatter upper slope. Mansard roofs were popular in the 17th and 18th centuries and are known for their practicality, offering added height and visual interest to buildings.
Mansard roofs, named after the French architect François Mansart, originated in France during the 17th century. King Louis XIV was a patron of arts & architecture who must have favored and influenced the popularity of mansard roofs in France.
These roofs offer several advantages. The sloped upper part of the roof allows for additional usable space within the attic or dormer. The steeper lower slope helps to shed rainwater more efficiently, reducing the risk of leaks and water damage. Also, the Mansard roofs can provide additional structural support to a building, especially in areas with heavy snowfall or strong winds. The symmetrical, balanced, and unique visual design of mansard roofs offers a distinctive silhouette that Paris is known for.
It’s not the first time I visit the museum, but I’m thrilled to share incredible genius of artists who created these pieces. I found the Louvre’s best art, some of it overly famous and other is not. Let’s explore the museum’s art collection together.
The Napoleon III Apartments
These luxurious red rooms are the most astonishing ones in the whole palace! You can’t skip them even if you’re short on time. You’d be stunned by the richness of its decorations. In 1861, these rooms became the apartments of Napoleon III, Minister of State, in the Richelieu wing. These opulent rooms in red, gold, and art, with crystal chandeliers, were used for various receptions, balls, dinners, and meetings between 1852 and 1870. It’s one of the most opulent rooms I’ve seen in many European palaces. Made around 1860, the largest chandelier sparkles with 180 lights and measures 4.7 by 3.27 meters.
One of the rooms displays the portrait of Emperor Napoleon III (1808-1873). The salon-theatre displays the portrait of Empress Eugénie and could house up to 250 guests. There was a special musicians’ platform above the stage hidden at first sight. The rooms have novel-designed red chairs and three-seater armchairs that zigzag to seat several people at once to have conversations. The Ministry of Finance occupied the rooms until the day the Louvre became a museum in 1993.
French Crown Jewels collection in the Apollo gallery
Being just 23 years of age, King Louis XIV aligned himself with the ancient Greek god Apollo to become the sun king in France. He hired the best artists of the day, including the architect Louis Le Vau and Charles Le Brun, the first artist to the king, to work on one of the most beautiful rooms in a palace after it burned in fire. These famous artists later worked on the Hall of Mirrors at the Château de Versailles, the preferred residence of the Sun King.
Le Brun created a whole journey of the God Apollo in a series of ceiling paintings. The sun god rides his chariot across the sky from dawn to dusk. Apollo’s journey is set with many images, symbols, and representations of time, zodiac, and calendar to show the rule over the Universe. In 1850, famous French artist Eugène Delacroix received a commission to decorate the ceiling’s centerpiece – a 12-metre wide painting. Delacroix depicted the most famous scene from the ancient Greek mythology, Apollo Slaying the Serpent Python, in a style of French Romanticism. At the same time, beautiful portrait tapestries of 28 monarchs and artists were added as wall decorations.
Today, you can view the royal collection of 800 hardstone vessels and the French Crown Jewels in the Galerie d’Apollon. These unique, artful vessels are made of precious stones, like agate, amethyst, lapis lazuli, jade, and crystal. Louis XIV had great taste!
THE FRENCH CROWN JEWELS (1530-1789)
On 15 June 1530, François I, king of France from 1515 to 1547, established the French Crown Jewels, selecting eight pieces of royal jewelry that were to remain the inalienable property of the monarchy. King Louis XIV (reigned 1643-1715) added more items to the collection during his reign. Under the subsequent sovereigns, for various occasions, the gemstones were used and remounted to create new items.
Today, you can admire natural beauty of precious stones and artistic achievement captured in a crown of Louis XV, a crown and diamond brooch of Empress Eugénie, Tiara of the Duchesse d’Angoulême, jewels of Queen Marie Amélie, necklace and earrings from the emerald parure of Empress Marie Louise, the Regent and pink diamonds, and many more fantastic pieces!
Badge of the Order of the Holy Spirit: 400 brilliant-cut diamonds and a ruby mounted on silver
The Order of the Holy Spirit, founded in 1578 by King Henri III, was a French order of chivalry. There are two hypotheses as to who received this badge from King Louis XV (reigned 1715-1774): his son-in-law, Philip, Infante of Spain and Duke of Parma, named Knight of the Order in 1736; or his grandson, Ferdinand, Infante of Spain and future Duke of Parma, named Knight of the Order in 1762. It was modelled on the badge from the white insignia of Louis XV, created by Pierre-André Jaqmin about 1750.
Eternal Egypt: Best Egyptian artifacts to see at the Louvre
The Egyptian art collection at the Louvre primarily came about through three main avenues, Napoleon’s conquests, 19th century acquisitions, donations, and purchases.
Did you know that Jean-François Champollion was the French scholar who deciphered Egyptian hieroglyphs in 1822. He was just 32 years old. He founded the Egyptian museum in Turin, Italy and the Egyptian collection in the Louvre by convincing Charles X to purchase the Egyptian artifacts.
The role of Napoleon in shaping the Louvre’s art collection:
During his military campaigns in Egypt (1798-1801), Napoleon and his troops discovered and plundered numerous ancient Egyptian artefacts. These treasures were then brought back to France and eventually housed in the Louvre. The 19th century saw a surge of interest in Egyptology, leading to numerous archaeological expeditions and discoveries. Many of these artifacts were acquired by European museums, including the Louvre. Also, over the years, the Louvre has acquired Egyptian artefacts through donations from private collectors and purchases from antiquities dealers and art collectors. These additions have further enriched the museum’s Egyptian collection.
The Louvre today boasts one of the world’s most extensive and significant collections of Egyptian art of over 6,000 works spanning 5,000 years of Egyptian history, including iconic pieces such as the Sphinx of Tanis. Egyptian art collection is rich and occupies two floors of the palace. Let’s look at the best Egyptian artifacts at the Louvre.
To house the Egyptian collection, some rooms were redone into the Museum of King Charles X (Egyptian Antiquities, Room 637, Sully wing, Level 1). The architects linked nine rooms together with high openings and stucco decorations. These are very beautiful rooms with painted ceiling decorations that were done by several famous French artists of the period, Antoine-Jean Gros, Horace Vernet, and Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres. Painted scenes depict ancient Egypt in Greco-Roman style. One of the paintings by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, The Apotheosis of Homer, was replaced with a copy, and the original hangs in room 702 (Salle Daru), Denon Wing, Left 1.
https://www.louvre.fr/en/explore/the-palace/a-royal-setting-for-egyptian-antiquities
Some of the most famous and best Egyptian artifacts to see at the Louvre include a Seated Scribe figure, jewelry, sarcophagi, tomb of Akhethotep, furniture, clothes, granite statues of kings and queens (Sesostris III, Ahmose Nefertari, Hatshepsut, Amenophis III, Nefertiti, Akhenaton and Ramesses II), standing statue of Horus, and numerous artifacts I list below.
Pectoral with the name of Ramesses II, Room 642, Sully wing, Level 1. 1279 / -1213 (Ramses II), cloisonné inlay, glass, electrum. It was found in a tomb of Ramses II.
Osiris, Isis and Horus represent a founding myth of Egyptian religion. Osiris was killed by his brother Seth but he was revived by his wife Isis who also birthed their son Horus, the falcon god. Horus symbolizes victory over evil and the enduring power of the pharaohs.
The cat goddess Bastet, 664 / -610 (Wahibrê Psamtik I), copper alloy, gold. Museum’s purchase in 1852 from a collector.
This is one of the most fascinating portrait sculptures of the Egyptian pharaohs I’ve seen. The face has an unusual, elongated shape with wide eyes, a long nose, and full lips. It’s not an idealized view of the Egyptian pharaoh but rather a portrait of a real person.
The ‘mastaba’ tomb of Akhethotep
“The mastaba of Akhethotep was purchased from the Egyptian government in 1903 and reconstructed in the Louvre. During the Old Kingdom (2700–2200 BC), members of the king’s circle were entitled to be buried in an elaborate mastaba – a massive structure built over a shaft leading down to an underground chamber, where the mummy of the deceased lay in a sarcophagus. The superstructure above the shaft contained a funerary chapel, where offerings were made to the deceased” -the Louvre
The Crypt of the Sphinx & Great Sphinx of Tanis
Room 338, Sully wing, Level -1
Made of pink granite, the statue was discovered in Tanis and purchased by the museum in 1826. For some reason, this statue receives a lot of attention from visitors, although there are some other similar, if not better, statues displayed in other parts of the Louvre that don’t get much attention at all.
Naos, once housing the statue of Osiris
The pharaoh Amasis (570-526 BC) had this pink granite naos bearing his name made for a temple in the Nile Delta dedicated to Osiris. A naos is a wooden or stone chapel, large or small, present in each temple and housing the cult statue of the god to whom the monument is dedicated. Every day, priests would open their doors, bringing offerings of purified food and drink to the god, who was dressed in special attire. Carved from a single block of granite, the naos bears depictions on its outer walls of the many deities constituting the personal guard of the god Osiris. Through augmented reality, the statue of the god Osiris regains its position in the temple sanctuary and receives offerings once again. By walking around the monument, you can explore the reliefs portraying the other gods. **From the museum’s description.
Reign of Amasis (570-526 BC), 26th Dynasty
The Dendera Zodiac
Made of sandstone, it was created between 15 June-15 August 50 BC, and purchased in 1822. Place of discovery: Temple of Hathor.
Various astronomical phenomena are recorded here, on the ceiling of one of the rooftop chapels of the temple of the goddess Hathor in Dendera. Inside a circle showing the year divided into ten-day periods (decans), we can see the twelve constellations of the zodiac, the five planets known at the time, and two eclipses – one solar and one lunar.
Upon its discovery in 1798, archaeologists hoped to date the Egyptian civilization correctly, but it raised great concerns over the established biblical chronology. Jean-François Champollion (1790-1832) was off by a hundred years, proposing the 50 AD date to reassure the pope of the established date of the Flood. Today, the temple’s inscribed dedications suggest its establishment in 54 BC, under Cleopatra’s reign. Through augmented reality, you can explore the three-dimensional details of these decorations and travel through the different levels of this celestial vault.https://collections.louvre.fr/ark:/53355/cl010028871
The Palace of Sargon II: History of the Louvre’s collection of ancient Near Eastern art
This is one of the most fascinating galleries in the Louvre because it displays the 8th century BC excavations of the ancient city, decorations, and the palace of King Sargon II at Dur-Sharrukin, present-day Khorsabad (Room 229, Richelieu wing, Level 0).
These wall sculptures represent the Assyrian Empire of King Sargon II, who built a new capital at Khorsabad, the largest city in the ancient world, with a huge palace. Unfortunately, his city soon declined after his death on a battlefield in 705 BC. French archeologists rediscovered the place buried in sand in the 19th century and brought the artifacts into the Louvre. Paul Émile Botta, the French vice-consul in Mosul, excavated the site that began the Mesopotamian and Near Eastern archaeology. https://www.louvre.fr/en/explore/the-palace/the-palace-of-sargon-ii
Carved into the entrance walls of the palace for protection, the protective genii (called aladlammû or lamassu) watched over the city and its palace. These colossal winged bulls weigh 28 tons each. Carved from a single alabaster block, the mythical, protective creatures look like bulls with eagle wings and human heads. These are fascinating creatures that resemble the art style of ancient Egypt with strangely moving legs, faces in profile, and flattened wings. This protective creature smiles gently and wears a hat with 3 sets of horns representing the divine power of the Mesopotamian region.
In these galleries, you can view “Gilgamesh overpowering a lion”, the high-relief sculpture that lacks original color but keeps its rough beauty. (Room 229, Richelieu Wing, Level 0). We look straight at the mad face of Gilgamesh squashing a lion. It’s not a side view, which is an unusual depiction of the hero. 721 /705 (Neo-Assyrian: Sargon II). It’s interesting to see how different people were in that region of the world. The man wears a bushy beard and curly hair. His long robe covers a loincloth. He wears sandals, earrings, and even a couple of different bracelets that were probably signs of his high status. This dark-toned sculpture was probably colored in white and other hues. Unlike the most refined granite sculptures of ancient Egypt, this figure lacks perfect proportions of the body but keeps stylization in place.
Cuneiform Script:
Sumerians developed cuneiform, a system of writing using wedge-shaped marks impressed into clay tablets, around 3500 BCE. The Louvre’s Near Eastern Antiquities collection, housed in the Galerie d’Angoulême (Room 301, Richelieu wing, Level 0), features Sumerian artifacts including cuneiform tablets, statues, stelae, and other objects.
The Louvre houses a Sumerian document with microscopic cuneiform, containing more than 30 lines of text and six to seven times as many signs as an ordinary cuneiform tablet. The Louvre also has a fragment of the Lament for Sumer and Ur, a Mesopotamian city lament.
Highlights of the Greek and Roman antiquities at the Louvre
This Ancient Greco-Roman Art Collection spreads across many rooms and levels. Obviously, it’s impossible to list everything that’s in this spectacular ancient Greek and Roman art collection but here are a few of my favorites.
The Louvre’s Greek art collection is a result of centuries of collecting, discoveries, and acquisitions. The first significant Greek artifacts were acquired by French collectors in the 16th century, primarily through diplomatic missions and personal travels. In the 17th Century, the Louvre began to acquire a small number of Greek antiquities, often as part of larger collections or gifts from wealthy individuals.
In the 18th Century, the Grand Tour, a cultural pilgrimage to Italy and Greece, became popular among European aristocrats. Many of these travellers returned with collections of Greek antiquities, which were often donated or sold to museums like the Louvre. Lord Elgin, a British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, is perhaps the most famous collector of Greek antiquities from this period. His controversial removal of the Parthenon Marbles from Athens remains a subject of continuous debate. You can read about the Parthenon’s fate here.
The 19th century saw a surge in archaeological excavations in Greece, leading to the discovery of numerous ancient Greek sites. Many of the artifacts found during these expeditions were acquired by museums, including the Louvre. Heinrich Schliemann, a German archaeologist, is famous for his excavations at Troy and Mycenae, he also wanted to excavate Knossos. The Louvre continued to acquire Greek antiquities through donations and purchases from private collectors throughout the 20th century.
The Getty Museum in Los Angeles and the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City are among the other major museums with significant ancient Greek art collections.
The galleries dedicated to Classical and Hellenistic Greece are found in Room 344, Sully Wing, Left 0. They were transformed into a large space from the royal apartments to display ancient Greco-Roman sculptures in the Louvre.
The galleries have several different sculptures of Athena, the Greek goddess of war, victory, and power. Mattei Athena stands tall with both hands in a resting pose gesture, and Athena, known as ‘Pallas of Velletri’ has one hand raised up and another down. Athena without arms is probably an ancient marble copy of a colossal sculpture that was standing on the Acropolis Hill in Athens.
Torso of the ‘Diadumenos’ type, Imperial Roman, marble, 100 / 150 (1st half of the 2nd century AD), Room 344, Sully wing, Level 0https://collections.louvre.fr/ark:/53355/cl010250998
The galleries with ancient Greek vases are located in a different place, the Galerie Campana. This is a long space of rooms with thousands of high-quality ancient Greek vases, cups, and other vessels. These galleries have several famous vases, like Hercules stealing the tripod from Apollo or Athena helping the hero win his battles, etc. The Marquis Giampietro Campana (1807–1880) was a super wealthy art collector who also led some archeological finds. After his arrest for financial fraud, his art collection was confiscated and sold off to czars and Emperors of Europe including Napoleon III. It’s a truly remarkable collection of ancient Greek pottery that can’t be missed! https://www.louvre.fr/en/explore/the-palace/the-marquis-greek-vases
What shocked me about the Louvre’s Greek art collection is its high quality and vast size. I’ve been to Greece before, and the archaeological museums in Athens and the islands have little high-quality ancient Greek art left in situ. It was disappointing but clear that Greece “gave away” numerous art pieces to private and public art collections around the world. Besides the Greco-Roman sculpture hall, the Louvre displays numerous, high-quality, ancient Greek vases in several rooms of the palace, the Galerie Campana.
Model of the temple of Zeus in Olympia
Built around 460 BC by the local architect Libon of Elis, the temple of Zeus in Olympia was the largest of its kind in the Peloponnese (27.68 m x 64.12 m). Surrounded by a colonnade, it was made of stuccoes and painted limestone, with its sculpted decoration made of marble. The pediments were dominated by the statues of Zeus on each facade, the patron god of the sanctuary. The east pediment depicted the preparations for the chariot race between the king of Pisa, Oinomaos, and the hero, Pelops. Pelops won, gaining dominion over the region. The west pediment depicted the victory of a mythical Greek tribe, the Lapiths over the Centaurs. It was an allegorical battle between civilization and the Barbary.
Inside the temple colonnade, above the entry porch (pronaos) to the east and the rear porch (opisthodomos) to the west, twelve metopes (rectangular elements with sculpture in high relief) of the Doric frieze featured the labors of Herakles, a hero considered one of the founders of the Olympic Games. The temple chamber (naos or cella) housed a colossal statue of Zeus in gold and ivory with a wooden core (about 460-450 BC). A masterpiece of the sculptor Phidias, the statue is considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.
The Greco-Roman art collection includes many sculptures of goddesses in the Louvre collection, including the Winged Victory, Venus de Milo, and Venus of Arles.
The Winged Victory of Samothrace
Who was the Goddess of Victory? In antiquity, the winged goddess Nike expressed the will of the gods. She announced, rewarded and glorified the victors. We often encounter the figure of Nike in sculpture, pottery, and goldsmithing. The Nikes found at the sanctuary of Delphi come from public buildings, where they were used as symbols of victory in literal or metaphorical battlefields.
The Winged Victory of Samothrace is one of the rare Greek statues whose exact original location is known as the Greek island of Samothrace. This beautiful sculpture was made as an offering to the gods for a sanctuary there. The Parian marble statue dates to 190 BC and was commissioned to celebrate the sailor’s victory. The winners, probably from the island of Rhodes, erected it in Samothrace to thank the Gods of the island. Located in the Aegean Sea, the broken into 110 pieces sculpture was discovered by Charles Champoiseau in 1863. The Winged Victory of Samothrace was placed in the Louvre 20 years after its discovery. The goddess of Victory’s wings were partially retrieved and restored with plaster. The pieces of the ship that form the base of this beautiful sculpture were found later on. Also, other excavations found one of her hands with missing fingers. https://www.louvre.fr/en/explore/the-palace/a-stairway-to-victory
The Venus de Milo
The Venus de Milo name comes from the Greek island of Melos, where she was found in 1820. The Marquis de Rivière, the French ambassador to Greece, bought the piece and presented the sculpture to King Louis XVIII. This is one of the best-preserved female nude sculptures existing today. The proportion, movement, and simplicity are divine. Venus was the only goddess depicted in the nude, and Greek sculptor, Alexandros of Antiocha, carved the woman in a beautiful, natural pose. https://www.louvre.fr/en/explore/the-palace/ideal-greek-beauty
The Michelangelo Gallery inside the Louvre
Napoleon III ordered the redesign of this gallery during the Second Empire (1852–1870). The Michelangelo gallery houses the unfinished work by Michelangelo and Canova’s masterpieces, among other Italian sculptures from the 16th to the 19th century. Built between 1854 and 1857, the Michelangelo gallery led to the Salle des États (the rooms that served for the legislation of the country). This new gallery also became an open space for a prestigious annual art competition, the Salon, for sculpture.
Room 403, Denon wing, Level 0
13 Famous Artists inside the Louvre
These are some of the most famous artists in the world, listed in no particular order. There are many more inspiring artists in the Louvre that I simply don’t have space to do so.
1. Leonardo da Vinci
Who painted the Mona Lisa and when, you may ask?
2. Eugene Delacroix
Eugene Delacroix’s “Liberty Leading the People” – This painting depicts the allegorical figure of Liberty leading the people of France during the Revolution of 1830 and is considered a symbol of the fight for freedom and democracy.
3. Arcimboldo
https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010065017 | Commissioned by Emperor Maximilian II (1527 -1576) for Elector Augustus of Saxony (1526-1586), the paintings show some symbolism representing the royal court. The crossed swords of Meissen and the coat of arms of Saxony appear on the winter coat, and the date of 1573 is inscribed on the shoulder of L’ Summer, signed by the artist. The Four Seasons have multiple layers of meaning. The obvious one is the change of seasons, but the four paintings may also suggest the four ages of man: childhood, adolescence, maturity, and old age, as well as everlasting peace and abundance of the Hapsburg’s empire. You can read about this artist here.
4. Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres
Ingres painted several versions of the Oedipus and Sphinx in the neoclassical style. The Walters art museum, the National Gallery in London and the Louvre have these paintings. Oedipus explains the riddle of the Sphinx, 1808, oil on canvas, Height: 1.89 m x Width: 1.44 m. On view at Denon, Room 702 – Daru Room, the Louvre.
5. David
David was the leading artist of the neoclassical art style being admirer of Michelangelo and Caravaggio. David is famous for his large-scale historical painting. His paintings ,like The Oath of the Horatii and The Intervention of the Sabine Women are on display in the Louvre, Room 702 (Salle Daru), Denon wing, Level 1.
David painted his assassinated friend and French revolutionary leader, Jean-Paul Marat. David was the leading French Neoclassical painter and supporter of the French Revolution. Being a member of the revolutionary Committee of General Security, he voted for the death of French king Louis XVI. Marat had a skin condition, the pain of which was elevated by taking a long bath. He was assassinated by Charlotte Corday in it on 13 July 1793. He painted Marat in a pose resembling the Pieta.
6. Georges de La Tour
7. Caravaggio
The Fortune Teller – Caravaggio 1595
Death of a virgin – Caravaggio 1606
Portrait of Alof de Wignacourt and his Page
8. Johannes Vermeer
9. Théodore Géricault
Théodore Géricault, “The Raft of the Medusa”. It was a revolutionary painting because it depicted a controversial subject of the day. This monumental painting depicts the aftermath of the shipwreck of the French frigate Medusa in 1816 and is considered a masterpiece of the Romanticism movement that created much controversy during the painting’s reveal. The artist depicted figures with stunning realism and movement characteristic of the Romanticism style.
10. Anne-Louis Girodet de Roucy-Trioson
11. Elisabeth-Louise Vigée Le Brun
Elisabeth-Louise Vigée Le Brun, La Paix ramenant l’Abondance
12. Titian
Titian, The woman in the mirror, oil painting, 1525 / 1550
13. Paul Delaroche
I absolutely love this painting for its emotion and artistic use of diagonals and contrast to create movement in this oil painting.
The Islamic Art Collection
What kind of Islamic art is in the Louvre Museum?
The Islamic art collection has amazing artifacts displayed in spacious, dark galleries below the ground floor in Cour Visconti. Some of the pieces display remarkable artistic skills. The collection spans from the rise of Islam in the 7th century to the late 19th century. Geographically, the collection comes from four regions: Spain, India, North Africa, and Egypt. Room 185, Denon Wing, Left -1
There are several Islamic zodiac/astral/celestial tools displayed throughout the museum, but i don’t remember what room they belonged to.
The inscriptions are engraved in a Maghrebi Kufic script, suggesting Morocco as its place of origin. The names of the stars on the “spider” (a cut-out copper plate rotating inside the case), except one, are in cursive style. Only twenty of the twenty-five star indexes bear names. It looks like the “spider” remained unfinished and was partially completed later. Inside the case (or mother), under the “spider”, is a metal disc engraved on both sides (or “tympanum”) to indicate the latitudes, which could be turned over as needed, depending on where the astrolabe was used (on one side, Meknes; on the other, Fez). The astrolabe also contains five other tympanums. The back of the astrolabe has the Julian zodiacal calendar (O° Aries = March 7), a chart of unequal hours, and a square of shadows. https://collections.louvre.fr/ark:/53355/cl010115734
I hope you enjoyed traveling across centuries of beautiful art with me. You can watch my video about the Louvre to see even more beautiful art, the interiors of the palace, the streets of Paris, and the beauty of France! Let me know what your favorite art is in the comments section of the video.
Further reading:
How to paint realistic details by studying famous art & artists through art history
When I travel and visit art museums, I study the art. I often take pictures of close-ups and details in the oil paintings to see how famous artists conveyed realism through texture and detail in their masterpieces. Some top art museums have digital art collections available to view and even download online these days, but many don’t.
I find it enjoyable to take pictures of jewelry, fabric, bows, gowns, metal, gold, silver and other details I see in art. I learned a lot by studying such detailed paintings and if you’re interested in the realist oil painting techniques, I suggest making painted copies of your favorite paintings. I hope this blog post can inspire you to do just that. Enjoy!
All photos are taken by me- Veronica Winters unless noted otherwise. Also, many famous paintings are in the public domain and can be downloaded for free from art museums websites like the Met, the National Gallery of Art, etc.
This article is getting updated with new art ideas. So come back soon by subscribing to my awesome VIP list!
The GODS of Ancient Athens: where Art, Astrology, Architecture and Mythology meet the Divine
This article is based on my trip to Greece with some information coming from Greek sites and books (links are included). I spent two months collecting and presenting the information here I hope you’ll find it useful to satisfy your curiosity to the max! Here, I delve into the world of ancient Greece to uncover the secrets of the gods of ancient Greece. I look at ancient architecture, Aristotle’s philosophy, the Antykithera mechanism, mythical creatures, archeological discoveries, ancient Greek lifestyle, and much more!
The Gods of Olympus as the Divine in Marble: A Sculptural and Astrological Exploration
Did you know that ancient Greeks had no holy books? Religion was taught through the act of worship. Ancient Greeks believed in the power of fate that was predetermined by the gods. This notion let them create stunning temples, festivals, and rituals worshipping gods. Ancient Greeks went to battles following oracles, commemorated wins in memorials to gods, and discovered mathematical principles used in architecture that reflected the divine harmony of the cosmos. Their philosophical view of the world and the pursuit of ethereal beauty in art paved the way for the Italian Renaissance many centuries later. We can argue if the beauty and power of ancient Greek classical sculpture was surpassed by Michelangelo or Canova, but one thing is clear. Ancient Greece was an advanced civilization with philosophical views on democracy, art, astrology, and god’s power that may as well rival our society today.
I was always inspired and puzzled by the divine skill of ancient Greek artists able to depict human form with such perfection and naturalism. Their strive for visual harmony in sculptures depicting gods was expressed through the mathematical principles, novel poses, and perfect proportions they believed reflected the divine cosmic order. Every ancient civilization tried to explain the origins of our existence in the Universe. It’s not a surprise that ancient Greek myths took a central stage in the lives of regular people. A combination of pagan deities and the Olympian gods probably came from the Near East but the Greek gods and goddesses were often unfair and capricious although powerful and divine. Greek gods and goddesses are reminiscent of regular people with their flaws, wants, and beauty. Also, the names of the gods relate to some planets in astrology. For instance in myths, Zeus (Jupiter) is immovable. Apollo (the Sun god) ran in his chariot. Hermes (Mercury) was a messenger running on tasks. The god of war, Aries was a lover of Aphrodite (Mars-Venus relationship). Let’s explore a few of these gods depicted in ancient sculptures found in Athens and beyond.
There were 5 famous ancient Greek sculptors: Phidias (c. 480-430 BCE), the designer of colossal Athena in marble, gold and ivory and chief sculptor of the Parthenon in Athens. Myron (c. 480-440 BCE) who developed advanced bronze casting methods. Polykleitos (c. 450-420 BCE) created precise, mathematical ratios and proportions to depict human figure. Praxiteles (c. 400-330 BCE) was the master of realistic marble sculpture, many of which are in the Louvre including Venus. Lysippos (c. 390-300 BCE) was the official sculptor to Alexander the Great who made naturalistic bronze sculptures.
Zeus
Zeus (Jupiter), the king of the gods in Greek mythology, was the ruler of Mount Olympus and the god of the sky, thunder, lightning, law, order, and justice. He was the son of the Titans Cronus and Rhea and overthrew his father to establish his powerful rule over everything. (Cronus knew about the prophecy that one of his children would kill him, but Zeus escaped his fate because his mother hid him from Cronus when he was born.) After the defeat of his father, Zeus divided the universe with his brothers Poseidon (Neptune), ruler of the sea, and Hades (Pluto), the god of the underworld. Zeus was a powerful god, often holding a thunderbolt in his hand. He was known for his numerous love affairs, both with goddesses and mortal women, which resulted in a large number of offspring, many of whom became important figures in mythology. While revered as a supreme god, Zeus was not without his flaws. He could be impulsive, capricious, and unfaithful to his wife, Hera, whose jealousy and vengeance were legendary. He fathered numerous children with other goddesses and mortals, including Ares (Mars, the god of war), Hephaestus (Vulcan, the god of armor and the forge), and Hebe (the goddess of youth) with his queen. Despite these shortcomings, Zeus had unlimited authority and was the ultimate arbiter of fate and a symbol of divine power. His influence permeated every aspect of Greek mythology and culture.
Zeus is often depicted symbolically as a big and muscular man with a lightning bolt, scepter, and an eagle. Often associated with the planet Jupiter, Zeus also represented the supreme cosmic order. In astrological interpretations, Jupiter was linked to expansion, wisdom, and divine authority. Sculptural representations typically showed Zeus with an eagle, a constellation symbol representing his power over the heavens. The Statue of Zeus at Olympia (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) depicted him seated on a throne, embodying celestial majesty.
The Temple of Olympian Zeus
The Temple of Olympian Zeus is located not far from the Acropolis Hill in Athens. Today the temple consists of a few Corinthian columns in a restoration mode and a couple of free-standing ones on a vast and empty field. So while there’s not much to see there visually, we can appreciate a historical place of power and worship.
The Temple of Olympian Zeus, also known as the Olympieion, was a construction spanned centuries, beginning in the 6th century BC and completed in the 2nd century AD under the Roman Emperor Hadrian. He adorned it with statues and a massive gold and ivory statue of Zeus, making it a symbol of both Greek culture and Roman power. Construction first began under the rule of the Athenian tyrants, who envisioned a temple that would surpass any other in the ancient world. However, the project was abandoned several times due to political upheavals and wars.
Made of Pentelic marble, the finished temple consisted of 104 towering Corinthian columns, each 17 meters (56 feet) tall, making it one of the largest temples in the ancient world.
Unfortunately, the temple’s splendor was short-lived. It was looted and damaged during a barbarian invasion in the 3rd century AD, and likely never fully repaired. Over time, it was further ravaged by earthquakes and the removal of building materials for other construction projects in the city.
Hera
Hera (Juno), the queen of the gods in Greek mythology, was the wife of Zeus. She was the goddess of marriage, women, childbirth, and family. While a powerful and majestic figure, Hera is often portrayed as jealous and vengeful, particularly towards Zeus’s numerous lovers and illegitimate children. She relentlessly pursued them, often inflicting harsh punishments. Despite this shortcoming, Hera was also revered as the protector of married women and a symbol of marital fidelity. She was a key figure in many myths and played a significant role in the Trojan War, often siding with the Greeks. Hera’s complex character, embodying both regal power and fierce resentment, makes her one of the most compelling goddesses in the Greek pantheon.
Hera, Queen of the gods, was often depicted wearing a crown and holding a staff.
If you’d like to skip to chapters: 00:00 Intro 01:07 #1 The Gods of Olympus as the Divine in marble and Bronze 01:13 Zeus, the god of all gods & the Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens 01:47 Hera, wife of Zeus 01:58 Athena & the sculptures of Athena inside the Parthenon and on the Acropolis Hill 03:08 Aphrodite & her depictions by famous artists in ancient art world 03:58 Apollo, the god of prophecy & music 04:50 Artemis, celestial goddess of the Moon and the hunt 05:17 Dionysus, the god of wine & the theatre of Dionysus in the Acropolis Hill 05:55 Hermes, the messenger god 06:13 Demeter, the goddess of harvest 06:28 Hephaestus & the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens 07:16 Asclepios, the god of medicine, & the temple of Asclepios in the Acropolis 08:09 #2 Philosophy of Aristotle about cosmos, beauty, reality & art 08:13 the Lyceum of Aristotle in Athens 08:36 Aristotle’s view of reality 08:51 Aristotle’s cosmology 09:09 Aristotle on Beauty in Art 09:33 #3 Discovering the origins of our constellation system & zodiac 09:34 Ancient Greek discoveries & history 10:46 Ancient Greek Technology that still baffles scientists: the Antikythera mechanism
Video part 2: released on March 29 https://youtu.be/SuPsFSTzUFY Part 2: the Secrets of Acropolis Hill revealed: Timestamps: 00:00 About part 1: ancient Athens 00:24 #4 decoding the divine in the architecture of the Acropolis Hill 00:34 Conversion of the Acropolis into a sacred space in ancient history of Athens 01:48 Unveiling the history and beauty of the Parthenon 01:55 the Parthenon’s art sculptures & ancient Greek Temple structure 04:31 The optical illusion and secrets of the Parthenon’s geometry 05:04 Goddess Athena, her sculpture inside the Parthenon & history of the Parthenon to the present day 05:53 What’s inside the cella & naos of the Parthenon? 06:14 Three architectural orders \ art styles of ancient Greek columns 07:43 The geometry of the Parthenon’s building 08:33 The monumental gateway 09:08 the Erechtheion, statues & Caryatids 10:19 Statue of Athena on the Acropolis Hill 10:28 Temple of Athena Nike 11:25 Theatre of Dionysus 11:39 The amphitheater-the Odeon of Herodes Atticus 12:30 other structures & temples 12:39 the monument of Agrippa 13:03 Use of Colors in ancient Greece to paint temples, monuments, etc 13:19 Bronze foundries 13:35 #5 War & peace: Games, Gym & the Battle of Thermopylae 13:40 ancient gymnasium history 14:26 the origins of the games 14:53 the Spartan battle of Thermopylae 16:34 #6 The Roman Forum: the heartbeat of Athenian democracy 16:55 The Stoa of Attalos 17:38 the Roman Agora & the tower of the winds 19:15 The library of Hadrian 19:45 The Aeropagus Hill 20:06 Ancient Greek jury service 20:18 What Athens looks like today
Gaea
Gaea was the primordial goddess or personification of the Earth and everything living. Gaia was the mother and wife of Uranus (Sky or Heaven) and Pontus (sea god). She was also the mother of the Titans and Cyclopes who made the armor of the Olympians. One of the descendants of the Titans was Atlas who held up the earth. There was also Hecate (an underworld goddess), Selene (goddess of the moon), Helios (a god of the sun), and Prometheus (a demi-god, who gave humanity the gift of fire and was severely punished for his action). In one of the mythological stories, she advised Zeus to free the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires from Tartarus, which helped the Olympians win the war against the Titans. In Roman mythology, this goddess has the name of Terra.
(Greek, Attic, active c. 420–400 BCE).
Athena receives the baby Erichthonios from the hands of the earth mother, Gaia
Athena
One of many children of Zeus, Athena (Minerva, Virgo) is the patron goddess of Athens, an honor she won in a contest with Poseidon. Athena, in Greek mythology, is the goddess of wisdom, war, peace, and protector of heroes, and a patron of arts and crafts. Born, grown in armor from the head of Zeus (Metis was her mother), Athena represents the balance of intellect and strength. Zeus knew about the prophecy and thus swallowed Metis alive not to give birth to Athena. Hephaestus split Zeus’s head open for Athena to emerge from it. Weird story, right?
Athena gave a gift to Athens- the olive tree to grow on the Acropolis hill. Athena's domain is wisdom, warfare and crafts. Her Roman version is Minerva. You can recognize the goddess visually on pottery and sculpture by looking at her unique dress. She often stands tall and wears an Attic helmet ( with raised cheekpieces and three crests with a sphinx and winged horses), the Attic peplos and aegis (the protective leather mantle) with little snakes and the beheaded Medusa. She often holds a spear and a shield with a Erichthonios, coiled as sacred snake behind her shield. Another hand holds either an owl or a Nike (Victory). Created by Pheidias, the colossal statue of Athena holds a Nike in her right hand and the left arm rests on her shield.
The statue of Athena Parthenos inside the Parthenon:
Lost today, a colossal, 11.5 meters tall (with the base), ivory-gold statue of Athena graced the interior of the Parthenon. Made by Pheidias in the 5th century BC, the sculpture’s existence and construction are proven by ancient literary sources and inscriptions inside the Parthenon made in antiquity. As a democratic action, all Athenian citizens could access and see the inscriptions of the accounting because the temple and statue construction was a public expense. The text was divided into two vertical columns, the left column had sums only, and the money paid was inscribed in capital letters into the stone. The inscriptions also recorded the names of the officials who oversaw the project’s construction. Accounting included both expenses and revenue.
Found in 1880 in Athens, near the Varvakeion school, hence the name of the statue. This marble statuette is the most faithful and best-preserved copy of the cult statue of the Athena Parthenos created by Pheidias for the Parthenon in 438 B.C. The original statue was about twelve times larger than the Varvakeion copy. Her skin was made of ivory and the rest of the gold leaf. https://www.namuseum.gr/en/collection/klasiki-periodos-2/ Photo: veronica winters
Statue construction & appearance:
A shallow pool filled with water stood in front of the statue to provide the necessary humidity level needed for its preservation. Today, only the traces of the statue’s pedestal and water tank exist inside the temple. A square hole in the floor indicates the precise location of the colossal statue. Ancient Greeks constructed the pedestal around the hole and then inserted a cypress tree wooden beam into it. This wooden pole served as the statue’s central structural support. The statue’s wooden parts were pieced together and joined to the core. Next, the artists used about 44 talents (1,051 kg) of gold leaf to cover the goddess’s dress and armor. Athena’s skin was made of ivory to imitate the figure. The pedestal’s front was also covered in gold leaf. The pedestal’s decoration consisted of a myth of Pandora’s creation, the creation of the first woman.
Mythical creatures embellished Athena’s helmet as she held a gold-leafed spear. As part of her classical Greek clothing she wore a peplos and aegis over it. The aegis was made of leather, showing the Medusa’s ivory head as the golden snakes swirled around it. Athena’s right hand was stretched up to hold a smaller sculpture of Nike (Victory) made of ivory and gold. Nike was about to crown Athena with a golden wreath lying in her hands. Athena’s shield was decorated with a relief battle scene of the Athenians and Amazons. The back side of the shield had a color decoration of another battle – gods fighting giants. A giant, curling golden snake stood behind the figure and the shield. It was the sacred snake and Athena’s companion. Done in relief, Athena’s sandals showed a battle between the Greeks and Centaurs.
The statue of Athena Parthenos was a symbol of Athens’ power and Pericles’ imperial rule. During a bitter political squabble, both Pericles and Pheidias were accused of stealing some of the gold from the statue. Pheidias’ monumental sculpture stayed inside the Parthenon for about 1,000 years!
The Gorgon Medusa was the mythological monster killed by Perseus with Athena’s help. Its severed head, named the Gorgoneion by the ancient Greeks, still retained the power to turn to stone anyone who looked into her eyes. Perseus gifted the head to Athena. According to Greek mythology, the goddess placed it either on her shield or her aegis, the protective leather mantle worn on her upper torso that you can see on all ancient Greek sculptures depicting Athena.
The Statue of Athena Pronachos on the Acropolis Hill
The colossal, 9-meter-tall, bronze statue of Athena Pronachos (475-450BC) and other votive offerings stood between the Propylaea (entrance) and the Erechtheion on the Acropolis Hill. The statue’s name means “Athena who fights in the front lines.” Long ago destroyed this statue of Athena, only keeps the 5-meter tall pedestal to the present day. Created by the renowned sculptor Pheidias, the Athenians dedicated this statue to Athena after their victory in the Persian Wars and probably used the spoils from the war to fund the project.
There’s no exact copy or visual of the original statue existing today, but late copies and images on Roman coins suggest that Athena was a standing figure, wearing traditional dress. Another version suggests that she had one outstretched hand holding either a Nike (Victory) or an owl. Pausanias, the 2nd century AD traveler and writer, mentions that her shield was decorated with scenes from the Centauromachy, the battle between Centaurs and Lapiths. According to ancient tradition, the point of her spear and the crest of her helmet were visible to sailors off Cape Sounion.
The Statue of Athena was taken to Constantinople and placed at the Hippodrome around the 5th century AD. Unfortunately, people destroyed it completely during the siege of the city by the Franks in 1204 because Athena’s outstretched hand beckoned the enemy in their view.
Aphrodite
Zeus became the father of many goddesses, including Aphrodite, the goddess of love, beauty, and fertility. She became the wife of Hephaestus and a lover of Ares. Aphrodite had several children, Harmonia, Eros, and Anteros. Aphrodite was also the mother of Hermaphroditus (with Hermes), Priapus (with Dionysus), and Aencas (with the Trojan prince Anchises).
Aphrodite is Venus in Roman mythology. She also has a distinct appearance in Greek vases and sculpture, being a very beautiful, young and often nude woman with an apple or bird. Venus symbolizes love in astrology but the Moon symbolizes motherly love.
This Venus was presented to King Louis XIV of France as a gift in 1683. François Girardon, the king’s sculptor, added the goddess of love’s attributes: a mirror and an apple, references to her victory in the Judgment of Paris. This work may be a copy of the Aphrodite of Thespiae (Boeotia, Greece), commissioned around 360 BC from the sculptor Praxiteles by the courtesan Phryne.
Hermes
Zeus became the father to Hermes as well. Hermes (Mercury), son of Maia, was the messenger of the gods, conductor of souls to Hades (the god of the underworld), and the god of travelers and commerce. So his domains were travel, magic, and trade. It’s believed Hermes invented the lyre and the shepherd’s flute.
In Greek mythology, Hermes is often depicted as a young and slender man wearing the winged boots, cap and herald's staff. Mercury in astrology is androgenous (no definite sex) with strong analytical skills and communication abilities. Mercury takes on the nature of the planets with which it has a connection.
Apollo
Ancient Greeks believed in Fate and personality to determine the result of events and their life. Apollo, the god of art, music, light, and prophecy, personified the Greek ideal of moderation in everything and channeled his prophecies through Pythia in Delphi. Apollo (Sun) is the god of light, music, poetry, philosophy, medicine, and prophecy, he was linked to solar symbolism by riding his chariot in the sky. In astrological interpretations, he represented the sun’s life-giving energy, artistic inspiration, and prophetic insight.
Many Apollo sculptures often feature the god holding a lyre, laurel, wreath and sometimes bows with arrows (as he killed the Python in Delphi). The god has perfect, slender, youthful body and a handsome, calm, idealized face with long, vawy hair. Apollo was the opposite in temperament to Dionysius.
To see the most beautiful and famous sculptures of Apollo, go here.
The god of the arts, shown as an adolescent boy, prepares to kill a lizard. The scene is a reference to the protective nature of the god or, in an indirect way, to his battle with Python, the serpent.
Artemis
Artemis (Diana the Moon), with her twin brother Apollo, was born of Leto and Zeus. Artemis was the virgin goddess of the hunt, animals, childbirth, and the Moon. She was also considered a moon goddess with Selene and Hecate. As the moon goddess, Artemis embodied lunar cycles and feminine mystique. Astrologically, she represented intuition, wilderness, and cyclical transformation.
Sculptures and art of Artemis often incorporated lunar crescents, hunting motifs, and celestial symbolism that reflected her connection to natural rhythms. Dressed in short garments, half-nude, she's often depicted running or almost floating above ground with a bow, arrows, and animals.
Dionysus
Dionysus (Bacchus) was the son of Zeus and of either Persephone (Proserpina), queen of the underworld, or the moon goddess Semele. Dionysus was the god of fertility, vegetation, peace, hospitality, and theatre. Raised on Mount Nysa, Dionysus invented wine-making and was often depicted as a wine god. His followers were the half-man, half-goat satyrs (Silenus, the tutor of Dionysus) and the nymphs and maenads (bacchantes). He was the opposite of the god Apollo but both gods were revered in festivals and rites almost interchangeably in ancient Greece. You can read bout the ancient rites in Eleusis here.
Visual appearance of Dionysis in art is often similar to Apollo's. He has a youthful appearance with beautiful, well-proportioned features. He's depicted with wine, ivy, satyrs, maenads, and lyre.
Demeter
Daughter of Cronus and Rhea, Demeter was the Greek goddess of agriculture, harvest, and Earth. You can read an extensive summary of the Greek myth of Demeter here.
She was depicted as a woman in full clothing wearing a crown. She often held grain or torch.
Hephaestus
Hephaestus, the son of Hera and possibly Zeus, was born as a sick child. Hera felt embarrassed and threw him out of Mount Olympus. He survived the drop to the sea to be rescued by two goddesses, who raised him in an underwater cave. He began forging jewelry there, soon to be noticed by Hera who returned him to Olympus, married him to the most beautiful goddess, Aphrodite, and let him work on his craft on the mountain. The life of Hephaestus has many ups and downs, and quarrels with Zeus and other gods because of Aphrodite’s many love affairs, to name a few.
Hephaestus, the god of fire and metalsmithing, had the Roman version, named Vulcan. He was often depicted with a hammer, tongs, donkey, and lame foot.
The temple of Hephaestus in Athens
The Temple of Hephaestus, also known as the Theseion, is one of the best-preserved ancient Greek temples in existence. It was situated in the Ancient Agora of Athens, a bustling marketplace and center of civic life. A classic example of Doric architecture, featuring 34 columns of Pentelic marble, the temple was built in the mid-5th century BC (around 449 BC), during the Golden Age of Pericles’ rule, alongside other Athenian structures like the Parthenon. It was dedicated to Hephaestus, the Greek god of fire, metalworking, and crafts, and Athena Ergane, the goddess of crafts and skilled labor.
The temple’s decorations include depictions of the Labors of Hercules, the battles of Theseus, and the fall of Troy. The temple was converted into a Christian church dedicated to Saint George in the 7th century AD and served as a museum in the 19th century.
Asclepios & The Temple of Asclepios
Asclepius was the ancient Greek god of medicine who was often depicted with a snake. His daughter Hygieia was the personification of “Health”. The Asclepielon, the sanctuary of these two gods, was founded in 420/19 BCE by an Athenian citizen from the deme of Acharnai, named Telemachos. ( To read about the symbolism of snakes in ancient Greece, go here.)
Today, the sanctuary is a partial reconstruction made after 2002. Among scattered stones and marble pieces, you can see the west part of the Doric Stoa’s ground floor, the Sacred Bothros (water spring), and the temple of Asklepios that stands behind the Acropolis’ walls. The temple’s location is a short walk around the Acropolis Hill on your way to the Theatre of Dionysos.
The founding of the Asclepieion is recorded in the Telemachos Monument. It was a votive stele consisting of a narrow shaft, crowned by two slabs with relief panels, which commemorated the arrival of the god in Athens from the Sanctuary of Epidaurus and presented him in his new residence at the sanctuary on the South Slope of the Acropolis. A copy of the Monument of Telemachos is exhibited in the Doric stoa of the sanctuary today.
The monumental entrance led to two courts of the sanctuary. The eastern court housed the temple, the altar of the god, and two stoas. Both the Doric Stoa on the north side and the Roman Stoa on the south side (added during the Roman period) accommodated many sick pilgrims traveling to the sanctuary. The Doric Stoa served as a hostel for the visitors to the Asclepieion, who stayed there overnight to be miraculously cured by the god, who appeared in their dreams. The Ionic stoa, the most important building of the Western court, served as a guest house and refectory for the priests and visitors to the shrine.
In the 1st century BC, the Temple of Asclepios was a building with a two-column façade and a small cella (inner temple), which housed the statues of Asklepios and his children, according to notes by Pausanias, who visited Athens in the 2nd century AD. In the 3rd century AD, the temple expanded its entrance to have a four-column façade.
The Doric Stoa consisted of two stories and the 17 Doric column facade was built in 300/299 B.C. The stoa’s design integrated with the Sacred Spring, a small cave with a natural spring flowing from the Acropolis rock. Water was an important attribute to the worship of the god and was combined with the Sacred Bothros, the sacrificial pit dated to the 5th century BCE. Ancient Greeks made sacrifices to the chthonian deities and Heroes. The Ionic Stoa also dates to the late 5th century BC. It was a one-story building with four rooms and a colonnade with ten Ionic columns.
When Christianity replaced paganism in the 6th century AD, all buildings of the Asklepieion sanctuary were integrated into the Early Christian Basilica, which was added to and rebuilt for centuries to come.
Philosophy of the ancient Greeks
The Lyceum of Aristotle:
The archeological site of the Lyceum of Aristotle is a considerable walk from the Acropolis in Athens. Today it represents a small field with a few rows of foundation grey stones surrounded by modern apartment buildings and a music school. The site is disappointing visually and if you’re short on time, it’s not worth your visit. However, if you think about the historical value of the place, it’s pretty amazing to find its existence here because Aristotle’s philosophy influenced humanity for centuries to come long after his death.
Aristotle was born in 384 BC at Stagirus in Thrace. His father Nickomachus was a physician at the court of King Amyntas II. In childhood, he was taught music, athletics, and Homeric poetry. When he was seventeen, he entered the School of Plato, the Academy in Athens, where he remained until Plato died in 347 BC. Aristotle diverged in his philosophy from his famous teacher, which prevented him from taking a leading position at the Academy. When Aristotle went to Mytilene, he met Theophrastus, a companion who later became his successor at the School in Athens.
Aristotle didn’t share Plato’s skepticism when he wrote his first draft of the Metaphysics. In 343/342 BC, the king of Macedonia Philip II invited him to Pella, as a tutor to his son Alexander. Aristotle introduced the young royal to the masterpieces of Greek literature and wrote the Iliad there. After the victory of the Macedonians in Chaeronia (338 BC), Aristotle returned to Athens to set up his School of Philosophy at Lyceum in 335 BC.
The Roman writer, Aulus Gellius, wrote that Aristotle strolled with his students every morning. Thus the School was named “Peripatos” which translates to the ‘morning stroll.’ Aristotle held intense discussions with his advanced students during the evening strolls. The philosopher and his circle collected numerous manuscripts and maps, establishing the first comprehensive library in Lyceum. During his 12 years there, Aristotle wrote his opera titled Politics, a large part of Metaphysics and Nicomachean Ethics. The Athens government was overthrown after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 bc, and to escape prosecution, Aristotle fled the city. He left Athens for Chalkis, the birthplace of his mother, where he died a year later. His body was taken to Stageira (Stagirus), where he was buried with honors, and people established a festival in his honor.
Looking at the remains of the school of Aristotle in Athens, it isn’t easy to appreciate the significance of this place. But Aristotle systematized the organization of “Cosmos” and beauty here. He launched systematized Logic (reasoning), Ethos (Morality), Psychology, Metaphysics, and Physics. His works on Logic were compiled under the title Organon in Byzantine times. His studies of Physics include works on practically all modern sciences, such as cosmology, mechanics, biology, anatomy, botany, and astronomy. Moreover, Aristotle engaged in philosophical, historical, and aesthetic studies, the latter comprised Rhetoric and Poetry.
The monumental intellectual work of Aristotle and his circle systemized all philosophical and scientific inquiries of the classical world. Aristotelian thought had an enormous impact on the formation of Christian theology. For Christian Scholasticism and Medieval Arab philosophy, Aristotle was the epitome of human wisdom and the undisputed authority in every discipline for eighteen centuries.
According to the museum, this painting conveys Rembrandt’s meditation on the meaning of fame. Rembrandt depicts the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE) dressed in rich clothes and looking at a bust of Homer, famous for his Iliad and Odyssey. Aristotle wears a gold medallion with a portrait of his most famous student, Alexander the Great.
Aristotle’s Philosophy about the Cosmos, Beauty, and Reality
Philosophy was connected to astrology in ancient Greece. Like Plato, Aristotle wanted to define time but he viewed the workings of the Universe as mechanical, not divine. Although he believed that celestial bodies were made of ether.
Aristotle’s cosmology, outlined in his work “On the Heavens,” envisioned a geocentric universe with Earth at its center. Earth was considered the immovable center of the cosmos, surrounded by concentric spheres carrying the celestial bodies. The divine realm of the stars occupies the highest position. This mirrored the hierarchical order of society. He envisioned the cosmos as two realms:
Sublunary Realm: The region below the Moon, characterized by change, imperfection, and the four elements (earth, water, air, fire).
And Supralunar Realm: The region above the Moon, consisting of a fifth element (aether), is considered divine, unchanging, and perfectly spherical, exemplifying the highest form of beauty. Celestial bodies in the supralunar realm were believed to move in perfect circles, reflecting their divine nature or celestial motion. This inherent order was seen as a reflection of divine intelligence. Aristotle believed in a natural motion for all objects, with each element seeking its natural place.
Aristotle's cosmology was deeply rooted in teleology, the belief that everything in nature has a purpose or final cause. The universe was seen as a grand, divinely ordered system with a specific function or purpose "telos". This sense of purpose contributed to the overall sense of beauty.
For Aristotle, the cosmos itself was the epitome of beauty because it offered perfection, order, and harmony. Aristotle saw beauty in individual objects and the grand cosmic order itself. The universe, with its workings and inherent purpose, was considered the most magnificent creation. Aristotle’s views on beauty extended beyond the cosmos. He believed that beauty in art and other human creations also resided in order, proportion, and harmony.
Aristotle’s Philosophy of Beauty in Art
Aristotle believed that beauty in art, much like beauty in nature, arises from:
- Order and Symmetry: A well-structured artwork, with its parts arranged in a harmonious and balanced way, is inherently beautiful. Think of the symmetry and balance in a classical Greek sculpture or a sonnet.
- Proportion and Magnitude: Beauty lies in appropriate size and scale. An object that is too large or too small can be considered disproportionate and therefore less beautiful.
- Definition & Clarity: Artwork should be clear in its form and meaning.
Aristotle believed that art is not a copy of reality but an imitation of it. Artist selects and arranges elements of reality to present a universal truth or a heightened sense of reality. In his famous work "Poetics," Aristotle argued that tragedy, through the depiction of powerful emotions like pity and fear, can have a purifying effect on the audience, purging them of these emotions. Aristotle saw beauty in art as an objective quality, rooted in principles of order, proportion, and clarity. He believed that art while imitating reality, should also offer insights into human nature and the human condition.
Aristotle’s cosmology dominated Western thought for centuries, influencing both scientific and religious thinking. While ultimately superseded by heliocentric models, his ideas about natural motion, the elements, and the importance of observation and reason laid the foundation for much of subsequent scientific inquiry. Aristotle’s view of beauty was re-established during the Renaissance in Italy.
Aristotle’s view of reality
Aristotle believed that reality is found in the physical world around us, not in some abstract realm of ideas. Unlike his teacher Plato, who believed in a separate realm of perfect, unchanging forms, Aristotle argued that reality resides in the concrete, individual objects we experience through our senses. For Aristotle, the fundamental building blocks of reality are “substances.” These are concrete things like a particular tree or a specific person. Every substance is composed of two essential elements; form and matter. Aristotle believed that everything in nature has a purpose or “telos” – a final cause or goal towards which it strives. This teleological view influenced his understanding of how things change and develop. In other words, Aristotle’s view of reality was grounded in observation and experience. He emphasized the importance of studying the natural world to understand its underlying principles and how things function. While Plato sought truth in a realm beyond our senses, Aristotle believed that true knowledge could be found by carefully examining the world around us.
Discovering the origins of our constellation system & zodiac
Astronomy is the scientific study of space, while astrology is a belief system that uses the stars to predict human events.
Hellenistic astrology:
Geocentric theory, which involves the Earth being the center of the Universe, originated either in ancient Greece or Egypt before 300 BC. Ptolemy wrote down this theory of the geocentric view for astrological use, although another Greek philosopher proposed the heliocentric rotation of the Earth and other planets around the Sun. This man, Aristarchus of Samos (310-230 BC), also guessed the Earths rotation on its axis daily. Centuries later, It was Copernicus (1500) who revived the correct theory of heliocentric model of the Universe for which he was burnt by the Church.
In Classical Greece, philosophy schools emerged to produce many theories in science, astronomy, ethics, etc. The founder of Greek astronomy was the founder of the Ionian School, Thales. Next, Anaximander believed that the fire rim held the Universe in place. Pythagoras wrote down the systematic views on religion and science, philosophy of astrology, that influenced humanity until the 17th century. Ancient Greeks incorporated Babylonian divination into their model of the Universe. Current names of the planets and their myths come from ancient Greeks of Hellenistic period.
The origins of our constellation system came from the ancient Greeks who had continued cultural exchange with ancient Egypt and beyond. The Greek poet Aratus wrote a poem about constellations titled ” Phaenomena” around 270 BC. The Greek knowledge of constellations descended from the Sumerians and Babylonians. Babylonia is home to astrology as they observed weather conditions and celestial bodies’ movement around 2000 bc. In a few centuries, they incorporated the sun and the moon, planets, and zodiac into their system around 1700 bc. Astrology became a subject of individual fate, future, and time predictions. So this interest evolved into a personal horoscope creation around 600 bc.
The word ‘planet‘ is derived from the Greek language and means ‘wanderer.’ The word ‘zodiac‘ means ‘little animals/creatures‘ from Greek. The zodiac is a band in the sky with the majority of planets’ motions inside it.
Interest in Astronomy declined after the fall of Babylon in 538 bc. Around this time, Egyptian astronomy became a system of magic with dreams’ interpretation to predict the future. Astrological writings and books appeared between 1-2 centuries bc in Egypt stored in the library of Alexandria. An Egyptian astronomer, mathematician and geographer, Ptolemy was born in Egypt and became head librarian at the Library of Alexandria. He built upon that knowledge as he probably derived his ideas from ancient Egyptian texts on astrology found at the Library. In AD 150 Ptolemy published The Almagest, a summary of Greek astronomy, including a catalog of 1,022 stars and their brightness, arranged into 48 constellations, the basis for our modern constellation system. Ptolemy’s work influenced his contemporaries in Egypt. Later, astronomers have added other constellations to the 88 constellations in total. The Aztecs and Mayans also developed a precise calendar for timekeeping, 365 days short of the solar year, although most of their knowledge got wiped out by the Spanish conquests in the 16th century. Their astrological system consisted of multiple circles that formed different calendars.
You can read more about the origins and history of astrology in a book titled “Astrology“, edited by Kim Farnell. This book has many beautiful illustrations in art depicting the zodiac, astronomy, and human view of the celestial world.
Decoding the Antikythera mechanism
Made of bronze, the Antikythera mechanism is an ancient Greek analog computer used for astronomical calculations, especially the Solar and Moon cicles. It's also an orrery, a mechanical model of the solar system, representing an extraordinary technological achievement from approximately 100-150 BCE. Composed of at least 30 bronze gears and plates, the mechanism was housed in a wooden box approximately the size of a mantel clock. It also calculated the four-year cycle of athletic competitions like the Olympic Games, and modeled the complex motions of (known) celestial bodies. Discovered in 1901 in a shipwreck off the coast of the Greek island Antikythera, this mechanical bronze device is often considered the world's first known complex scientific instrument as the mechanism used differential gears - a technology not seen again until the development of mechanical clocks in the 14th century.
While in one of the archeological museums in Athens, I saw an exhibition about the Antikythera mechanism. The information below comes from that show that I re-wrote for a better reading experience.
If you plan to visit any of the Greek museums, pay attention to working hours as they vary and often close in the afternoon! The National Archeological Museum of Greece – https://www.namuseum.gr/en/collections/
Ancient Astronomical Cycles of the Moon
The Metonic Cycle
Metonic (lunar) cycle has its origins in Babylon, but the astronomer Meton discovered the Moon’s 19-year period in 432 bc. The end of each period marked the new Moon on the same day of the year. A calendar year doesn’t fit a whole number of lunar months. Named after the Athenian astronomer, the Metonic Cycle addresses this problem by using the close identity of 235 lunar months with 19 years and 6.940 days. Meton proposed a calendar based on this cycle, starting at the summer solstice in 432 BC. Today, the date of Easter changes depending on the Moon’s phase and is calculated using the Metonic Cycle.
The Callippic Cycle
A century later, another astronomer Callippos improved the accuracy of the cycle by equating four Metonic periods (4 times 19, equal to 76) with 27.759 days (4 times 6.940 minus one day).
Saros and Exeligmos Cycles
The Babylonians came up with a different Lunar cycle. They observed repetitions of the lunar eclipses every 223 lunar months (6.585 and 1/3 of a day, i.e. approximately 18 years) – the Saros Cycle. The Saros period doesn’t have a whole number of days. Therefore, the repeat eclipse shifts by about 8 hours.
The ancient astronomers identified a triple Saros cycle of 669 lunar months, which consists of a whole number of days. They called this cycle the “Exeligmos Cycle“. Ptolemy named the “Saros Cycle” as “Periodic Cycle” but it was renamed back to the original by the English astronomer Edmund Halley in 1691, based on a misinterpretation of a Hellenized Babylonian word.
The Moon’s Motion & Pin-and-Slot Device in the Antikythera mechanism
Recent research has led to the discovery of how the Antikythera Mechanism calculates and displays the complicated motion of the Moon.
The gear train that drives the Moon’s pointer on the front dial passes through four gears e5, k1, k2, and e6. Instead of being fixed to the same axle as k2, gear k1 uses a pin to turn gear k2 by pushing on the edge of a radial slot in k2. The two gears are mounted slightly off-axis from each other, so that as they turn the pin is sometimes nearer, sometimes further away from the axis of k2, causing a slightly varying rate of rotation to the lunar drive. This “variable speed device” introduces a variation in the Moon’s motion that’s observed in the sky. The moon moves across the sky at a slightly different rate every night because of its elliptical (and not circular) orbit around the Earth.
Today’s “first anomaly of the lunar motion” was known to the ancient Greeks designing the Mechanism. Although its cause was not fully understood, Hipparchos had worked on a theory to explain it. In a sophisticated, refined design, the variable speed device gears are mounted on the big turntable gear e3, which makes the variation occur at the correct observed period, which is slightly different from the period of the Moon’s orbit around the Earth. The mounting of gears on other gears, known as “epicyclic gearing”, was a technological breakthrough of ancient Greeks.
The epicyclic gearing or planetary gearing, is a gear system consisting of one or more outer, or planet, gears revolving about a central sun gear. The Sun gear is the central gear. Multiple gears orbit the sun gear. An outer gear (ring gear) that meshes with the planet's gears. There is a Carrier, a component that holds and rotates the planet gears around the sun gear. The sun gear, planet gears, and ring gear mesh together but begin moving when one component (sun, carrier, or ring) is held stationary, the rotation of another component causes the third component to rotate at a different speed and/or direction.
What's fascinating that this system of gear rotation is widely used today in mechanical systems, like automatic transmissions, wind turbines, construction equipment and robotic joints because Epicyclic gear systems can achieve significant gear ratios in a relatively small space and can transmit high torque, and provide controlled, precise motion!
The Antikythera mechanism Function:
The turning of a handle through the side of the casing moved all the pointers simultaneously using gears and axles connecting them. By selecting a specific day on the front dial’s calendar and the desired year and month on the upper back dial, the rest of the pointers calculated corresponding astronomical information. Conversely, by setting the pointer on an astronomical event, its past or future date was estimated.
For instance, the user could check the position and phase of the Moon, and the eclipses that might occur for a given day of the selected month. However, the most remarkable ability of the Antikythera Mechanism is to show the variable motion of the Moon, realized through an extraordinary epicyclic gear train.
Gears & Astronomical Periods:
How can gears transmit ratios that are connected to astronomical periods?
For example: if a 100-teeth gear meshes with a 50-teeth gear, the second will rotate with half the period, twice as fast: when the larger gear has revolved once, the smaller has revolved twice in the opposite direction. With the appropriate combination of gears, rotations can be multiplied and divided to correspond to astronomical periods. The particular number of teeth on the gears of the Mechanism has been chosen by the original designer to reproduce the Metonic and Saros periods, as well as to simulate the apparent variable motion of the Moon.
Two particular gears from the Mechanism are named b2 (with 64 teeth) and cl (with 38 teeth). So their ratio is -64/38 (the minus sign means that the rotation of the first one, the “input”, is opposite to the rotation of the second one, the “output”). The number 38 contains the prime number 19, i.e. the number of years in the Metonic Cycle.
Music of the Spheres:
Can the solar system movement relate to musical harmony? It was ancient Greek philosopher & mathematician, Pythagoras, who figured out that the pitch of a musical note depends on the length of the string that produces it. He also correlated the intervals of the musical scale with simple numerical ratios. He and his followers believed in earthly music that echoed the 'harmony of the spheres' that ascended from Earth to Heaven. Each sphere was a specific note of a musical scale. The tones emitted by the planets depended upon the ratios of their orbits. Medieval cathedrals' architecture was based on the proportions of musical and geometric harmony thanks to Pythagoras.
Two Devices with Gearwheels
Aristotle, who is probably the author of Mechanika, offers a remarkable description regarding motion transmission using several small bronze or iron discs tangent to each other (848a). When one disc is set in motion, several other discs, being in touch with each other, are set in opposing motion. The author is referring to a small device containing many little wheels, destined for temples.
Heron’s Hodometer consisted of a set of toothed wheels, which, meshed with worm gears, transmit the movement of a chariot wheel and convert it into units of length. The three discs on top of the hodometer record the distance covered in units of length. In the recent reconstruction, the chariot is a scale model, while the hodometer is the full size since it can be fitted to a larger vehicle.
Two Astronomical Instruments
The planisphere astrolabe is a disk-shaped instrument used in the measurement of time, the celestial body’s location, and the measurement of angles. Ptolemy’s astrolabe is an observational instrument whose rings represent the celestial globe or how the ancient Greeks saw Cosmos. It’s a spherical astrolabe named “armillary sphere” in the West. The Latin word armilla means bracelet. Circular laminas represent the circles of spherical celestial geometry.
Decoding the Divine in the architecture of the Acropolis in Athens
The Acropolis of Athens is a sacred landscape that embodies the pinnacle of Greek architectural, philosophical, and religious thinking. The layout is a masterpiece of intentional design, reflecting complex astronomical, mathematical, religious, and cultural principles. Here, I’ll explore these concepts based on my visit to the Acropolis in Athens in 2024.
The Acropolis: conversion into a sacred space
The ancient Greeks have inhabited the Acropolis Hill in Athens since the Neolithic era. It became the seat of a local, Mycenean ruler who fortified the Hill in the 13th century. BC. As the Mycenaean civilization collapsed around 1100 BC, three centuries of economic and cultural decline followed. (To read about the Mycenean civilization, discover the Palace of Knossos). People lived through the “dark ages” until the 8th century BC when the Hellenic world entered a new era. The organization of the political city-state, colonization, and boasting trade led to economic and cultural rebirth. The establishment of the Olympic Games (776 BC) contributed to the creation of major sanctuaries of panhellenic religious and political significance.
In Athens, the institution of hereditary kingship weakened gradually. Political and religious authority passed to a few wealthy, aristocratic families with large ownership of land. The citizens, mostly poor farmers, lived throughout the Attica countryside and around the Acropolis. They were organized by lineage into clans (“phratries”), each with a common founding ancestor or patriarch, and each with its own religious rituals. These citizens depended on their landowner-patrons.
The new rulers transferred the administrative functions of the city-state from the Acropolis to the city below, where the first Agora began to develop as the citizens’ main gathering place. Gradually, public offices and functions moved to the Agora. This place became the focal point for all social and economic life including athletic and theatre contests.
The summit of the hill became the central religious sanctuary of the city to worship the protectress of the city, Athena, and other gods. In the 7th -8th centuries BC, a small wooden temple appeared dedicated to Athena Polias, and the mythical King of Athens, Erechtheus. Homer named this temple “the house of Erechtheus and Athena”. Only two stone column bases from the original temple remain from this original temple in the Acropolis today. The second remainder of the temple is a bronze sheet with a Gorgon, which probably adorned the temple’s pediment.
In the 6th century BC, the Acropolis became the most important sanctuary in the city dedicated to the goddess Athena. Worshippers dedicated numerous votive offerings to the monumental temples, such as marble statues of Korai, horsemen, clay and metal vases, and figurines. Wealthy Athenian aristocrats would bring and place expensive bronze tripods and offerings to the temple of Athena. This temple and the Erechtheion comprised Athens’ most sacred place of worship at the Acropolis. Carved from the olive wood, the cult statue (xoanon) of the goddess Athena stood here. The Athenians believed that Zeus sent it to them from heaven.
The construction of temples, votive offerings, and monuments continued until the Roman Period. The temples that we see today in Acropolis, like the Sacred Rock, Propylaia, Parthenon, Erechtheion, and the Temple of Athena Nike, were erected in the 5th century BC on the initiative of politician Pericles who made Athens a hegemonic power among the ancient Greeks. The monuments erected under his rule symbolize the political, economic, and artistic peak of Athenian democracy. The history of the Athenian Acropolis is not limited to antiquity. Its monuments underwent many transformations under Christianity and during the Frankish and Ottoman rule.
(Writing is based on descriptions seen at the site in the Acropolis).
The Acropolis embodied the highest achievements of Greek civilization – a perfect synthesis of art, science, philosophy, and religious understanding. You can read about the Acropolis here as well: https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/404/#:~:text=The%20Acropolis%20of%20Athens%20is,are%20approximately%20170%20by%20350m.
The Parthenon’s sculptures
Sculpture example: Iris is a messenger goddess. She acted as herald for the chariot group of Poseidon. She had winged and descends to Earth from flight. The bronze wings were made separately. The drapery rushes against her body, flapping in the wind. Blue color has been found on her belt. WEST PEDIMENT N
A goddess reclines in the lap of her companion. Caved from one block, possibly goddess Aphrodite in the lap of her mother Dione. Two figures are balanced by the third figure of a nude youthful god.
The original Parthenon’s sculptures from the pediment are displayed in the British Museum, in London, but you can still see the model & composition of figures in the Archaeological Museum in Athens. They show deities witnessing the birth of Athena from the head of Zeus. All figures flow in a continuous, soft movement of relaxed and reclining figures. The artist masterfully puts the figures in a boxed-in environment of the pediment, considering the steep angle of our viewership, so you see fragments of the figures on the sides of the pediment. Chief sculptor, Phidias oversaw the production of all sculptures in the Parthenon.
The continuous frieze of the Parthenon is about 525 feet long. The main scene illustrates King Erechtheus’s sacrifice of his three daughters as the oracle at Delphi commanded to save Athens from enemies this way.
The north frieze begins with a preparation scene reminiscent of those on the west. A boy helps a rider to adjust the length of his tunic, while another horseman waits in readiness. As this man restrains his horse, he anxiously looks back at his unprepared comrade. NORTH FRIEZE XLVII, 132-136
The horsemen of the north frieze: The composition of the north frieze is less varied than the south. The 60 horsemen are arranged into ten ranks. The dress and armor varies from figure to figure.
The north frieze occupied one of the long sides of the Parthenon, continuing the cavalcade that began on the west side. Chariots ran ahead of the horsemen, and ahead of them came various groups of pedestrians.
Unlike all other sculptures in the Parthenon’s decoration, the metopes ( 440 bc), show violence. (more images down below).
- 1. The combat between the gods and giants
- 2. The battle of Lapiths and Centaurs
- 3. The Sack of Troy by the Greeks
- 4. Greeks fighting Amazons, who, according to legend, had desecrated the Acropolis. It’s a disguised myth of Athenians’ victory over the Persians who destroyed the Acropolis.
Unveiling the history & visual beauty of the Parthenon:
Brief History:
The Parthenon, a temple of the Doric order, was dedicated to Athena Parthenos (Virgin). The Parthenon was built in 447-438 В.С. and its sculptures were completed in 432 B.C. It was the central and most important building of the Pericles’ order to re-establish Acropolis as a sanctuary after the sack by the Persians in 480 B.C.
The entrance to the Greek temple faces east, towards the rising sun. Unlike ancient Egyptians, Greeks designed their temples to experience them from the outside the most with outdoor altars and festivals. The Greeks learned stonecutting and masonry skills, geometric architectural design and ornamentation from artists of the ancient Egypt. The Greeks designed their temples around the idea of "Perfection" unlike the Egyptians whos idea was 'Foreve.r' Greek architecture of Doric and Ionic order designs expressed a perfect balance of forces and harmony of sizes and shapes. (based on "The History of Art," Janson H.W.)
The Parthenon was built from the Pentelic marble in the place of the original, incomplete temple started under Aristeides. The Greeks left no notes of how they built the temple. They worked stones to perfection as each one was dedicated to the individual function. Therefore, the broken stones we see scattered on the Acropolis today can be identified and allocated to specific buildings they originally belonged to. Most of the foundation consisted of marble blocks that joined the temple to the rocky soil (the rock on the eastern side was hewn into shape). The geometric plan for the Parthenon’s facades consisted of circles and semicircles. The stylobate was the base of the temple that rose 3 steps over the foundation level. The cella’s base consisted of a smaller platform raised over the stylobate.
Artists created intentional optical illusions with the temple’s design. Was it done to heighten our perception of beauty? While ancient Greeks made other temples with perfect geometry, in the Parthenon, the stepped platform and entablature curve gently from the angle to the center (being higher in the center than the ends). So the columns lean inwards and the columns’ heights vary in their place and function. None of the columns is the same, including different spaces between the corner column and the others. Moreover, every capital of the colonnade is slightly adjusted to fit the architrave’s curvature, being cut individually as unique sculptures would be cut.
The team of architects of the temple consisted of Iktinos and Kallikrates (Iktinos, Callicrates, and Karpion). Famous sculptor Pheidias collaborated with them too to design and build the main decoration of the temple – the statue of Athena made of chryselephantine (gold and ivory). Athena stood in the cellar inside the Parthenon. In the following centuries, several votive offerings were added to the Parthenon. Such gifts included the bronze shields by Alexander the Great dedicated to his victory at the Granikos River (334 B.C.). The shields hung along the east architrave. The bronze letters of a decree by the Athenians in honor of the Roman emperor Nero (61 A.D.) were fastened on the east architrave.
In the 3rd-4th century A.D., the interior of the temple vanished in a fire set either by the Germanic tribe of the Heruli (267 A.D.) or by Alaric’s Visigoths (396 A.D.). During the early Christian period in the 6th century A.D., the Parthenon was converted into a church dedicated to the “Holy Wisdom”, and later to the Virgin Mary. During the construction of the Christian apse at the east porch, the central scene depicting the birth of Athena on a pediment was lost. In 1204, the Frankish crusaders, the Dukes De la Roche, besieged Athens and converted the monument into a Catholic church of Notre Dame. When Athens was surrendered to the Ottoman Turks in 1458, the temple became a mosque with a minaret. The Parthenon is the only sanctuary that served 4 different religions in succession -the Athena temple, the Byzantine church, Catholic cathedral, and a Turkish mosque.
Finally, the temple exploded with Turkish gunpowder in 1687 causing the most damage to its interior. It happened during the siege of the Acropolis by the troops of Venetian general Francesco Morosini. A cannonball made a direct hit into the interior of the temple, which the Turks used as a storage place for gunpowder. The horrific explosion blew up the roof and destroyed the long sides of the temple as well as its sculptures.
The most severe manmade damage to the monument happened between 1801-1802. The Scottish ambassador of England to Constantinople, Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, removed the majority of structural sculptures from the temple. By bribing the Turkish garrison of the Acropolis and employing teams of the Italian artist G.B. Lusieri, Elgin removed 19 pedimental sculptures, 15 metopes, and the reliefs from the frieze of 56 sawn blocks to ship to England. Today, these sculptures are on view at the British Museum in London.
Unlocking the Divine Beauty Through the Architectural Design of the Parthenon:
So let’s look at the Parthenon’s features in greater detail to understand and appreciate the genius of ancient Greek artists who created this and other temples as dwellings for the deity.
The Cella & Naos:
The Parthenon was the dwelling of Athena. The vestibule consisted of a portico with columns that were repeated in the back. The cella, an enclosed shrine or structure in the center of the temple, was the most important part of the building. If we think of the Matreshka doll design with figures being placed one into another, the cellar was a small temple placed inside a big one. Raised on a stylobate, the cella was surrounded by the colonnades of parallel walls supporting the roof that harmonized well with the rest of the building.
The cella was unconventionally wide with an extra row of slender columns at both entrances. Created in a classical Doric style, it gave an impression of lightness. Artists didn’t follow strict geometric rules intentionally to create aesthetically pleasing cella.
Naos was the eastern chamber or shrine of the cella where the statue of Athena stood in the center of all geometric circles forming the divine proportion. The Pentelic marble floor had varied paving depending on the placement of the columns and sculptures above it. The architects made 23 columns to surround the Goddess, with 10 columns on each long side. Two corner columns stood on squares, while the rest of them stood on the joints between two stones.
By standing at the very center of the temple next to the statue of Athena we could see the conceived divine architectural beauty expressed in rhythmic placements of triglyphs, metopes, and fluted columns to create symmetry and order to alternate with glimming landscape beyond the temple’s walls.
What are the three styles of Ancient Greek Architecture? Architectural Orders of Columns
Ancient Greeks created three classical architectural orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. (The Corinthian is the variant of Ionic).
#1 The Doric order is the oldest one, developed on the mainland. There were 3 sources of inspiration for the early creators, pre-archaic Greek, Mycenaean, and Egyptian architecture. The main source of inspiration for the Doric order design was Egypt around the 8th century BC. (The Hatshepsut’s Temple has a proto-doric colonnade built around 1480 BC.) However, it’s not clear if the Greeks took the alternating triglyphs and metope designs from general Egyptian construction or came up with their unique design.
# 2 The Ionic order:
The Ionic order developed on the Aegean Islands and the coast of Asia Minor. The Ionic-order temples exist in the Acropolis only. The continuous frieze of the Ionic order features continuous sculpture in high relief and doesn’t have alternating triglyphs and metopes of the Doric order.
The Ionic column has a different design too that’s more elaborate, light, and beautiful. It has an ornate base, a slender shaft, and a smaller tapering. The capital presents a large double scroll, called volute, that is reminiscent of a curving leaf, petal, or papyrus, the shape of which originates from Egypt stylistically. (Example is the North palace, funerary district of King Djoser, Saqqara)
# 3 The Corinthian order:
The Corinthian capital shape of a sprouting and curling acanthus leaves got created around the late 5th century to substitute the Ionic style columns. These elaborate columns were used for interiors only for about 100 years. Then, the Corinthian order became commonplace in the exterior use as well.
Decoding the secret behind Greek columns’ design:
The team of architects worked on every part of the building to create visual harmony through the proportion and balance of each element to form the overall harmony of the temple. Greeks had made many temples before completing this one with deliberate columns adjustments.
"What then is the foundation of this wonderful harmony? When we examine the various measurements more closely we are puzzled to find variations, which to craftsmen would seem inexact and careless. The stylobate is wider on one side than on the other, the steps vary in height. There is not a single intercolumnation of the peristyle which tallies exactly with another. The heights of the columns and their diameters vary and their axes are not perpendicular. The lines of the stylobate and of the entablature are not level. Under the circumstances in which the temple was built we cannot admit that these deviations from mathematical accuracy were due to carelessness." Irma Richter
How did the architects determine the correct spacing between the columns?
The triglyphs look uniform around the entablature. Each end of the temple has a triglyph at the angle but the columns’ spacing isn’t regular to fit them at the angles. To determine the spacing for the triglyphs, artists used mathematical divisions to form a geometric progression in which the third term equaled exactly the triglyph’s width. The builders probably calculated the location of the triglyphs to reduce the spacing of the columns. (p.74)
To determine the position of the corner-stones:
The cornerstones of the Parthenon are incorporated into the steps leading up to the platform of the peristyle. The length of this step in front measures 110’64 ft. and is exactly equal to forty times 2.766 ft., the width of the triglyph. Thus, the frontage of the building was obtained by multiplying the width of the triglyph by forty. (p.75)
The Peristyle:
The peristyle is a row of columns surrounding a space within a building. Greeks built 46 columns over the uneven floor that curved gently upwards from the angles towards the center. Its convex surface has been compared to a gigantic lens cut in a rectangular shape. The entablature ( a horizontal, continuous lintel on a classical building consisting of the architrave, frieze, and cornice) has a similar, slight curve so that the columns at the angles are higher than in the middle. The axes of the columns are not perpendicular but lean inward gently towards the Temple’s center. Except for the columns at the angles, the columns’ axes on each front or flank are parallel to each other. The angle columns, participating in the inclinations of the two contiguous colonnades, have a greater inclination than the ordinary columns. This elaborate optical illusion design required setting huge drums on a slightly convex floor and adapting them to the inward inclination of the columns’ axes. Moreover, it required the adaption of the capitals to the entablature’s curve and a slight swelling to the outline of tapering shafts. The architects also rethinked overall proportions viewed from the distance to pursue the divine beauty of the temple as a whole. As a result, the entire temple is mathematically imperfect intentionally to be perfect in our eyes.
Sculpture compositions:
High-relief sculptures in the metopes depicted the battles between Centaurs & Lapiths. The arrangement of figures follows placement within the tree circles in divine proportion.
"Suggestive of the circular motion of heavenly bodies, Helios, the Sun-god, was seen on one side of the East pediment rising out of the sea, guiding with outstretched arms his fiery team, while on the other side the moon goddess was dipping her horses below the horizon." (p.78)
The proportions of the peristyle columns capitals are repeated on a gigantic scale in the plan of the building.
"Vitruvius sets forth a rule which is often referred to in descriptions of ancient architecture. He said that a columned building was designed with reference to the lower diameter of the column. By means of this measure the proportions of the other parts of the composition were regulated and brought into harmony. The so-called module was usually the half-diameter of the bottom of the shaft, its radius. In the column of the Parthenon this measure corresponds to the diameter X of the major scale. It may therefore very well have served as module; but the module was the tenth term of a geometric progression of which the total length of the building was the first." Irma Richter
The Façade:
“The distance between two column axes corresponds to one-half the radius of circle IV of the major scale, a procession of three columns corresponds to the radius, of five columns to the diameter of the same circle.
The columns divide the space vertically. The column centers were marked beforehand for the builders to set the lowest column drums on the stylobate. They put the angle columns on squares and the rest over a joint in the pavement. The alternating triglyphs and metopes in the frieze followed the mathematical division of space. The width of the metopes corresponds to the radius VIII of the major scale. And the width of each glyph to half the radius of the circle X of the minor scale.
The horizontal lines of the temple harmonize with the vertical division of the space. “The most important line is the division between the columns and entablature. The total height from the apex to the bottom of the euthynteria is divided into the divine proportion by this line. Within this main division, the subordinate elements are ranged with measures set in the major and minor scales. The height of the building from the upper step to the apex of the pediment corresponds to half the radius I of the major scale. The height of the flanks from the upper step to the cymatium equals the radius III of the major scale. The height of the pediment equals half the radius IV of the major scale. The height of the cornice equals the diameter XI of the same scale, while its projection equals the diameter X of the minor scale. The height of the frieze is equal to one-third of the diameter VII of the major scale. The average rise of each of the three steps of the stylobate is equal to the radius of circle IX of the minor scale. The open spaces between the columns partake of the rhythm; their outlines may be likened to the contours of a row of gigantic Greek vases.”(p.80) Irma Richter
In conclusion, the Parthenon’s beauty lies in its harmonious proportions that are not only mathematical but also visual. While the Parthenon is renowned for its symmetrical design, the architects had an excellent understanding of optical illusions and human perception, “correcting” the structure visually to be more beautiful to the human eye. They incorporated subtle curves and adjustments to the floor and column’s design to create an illusion of perfect symmetry being imperfect on purpose. It’s a big question of how the Parthenon would look in its former glory and if we would be able to see the original thought and difference in the building’s design in comparison to contemporary buildings created in this style. For instance, there’s an exact copy of the Parthenon built in Nashville you can go and see in the US. Many American buildings were inspired by the classical architecture of Rome. In my opinion, contemporary buildings designed in the Greco-Roman style lack the profound beauty, often looking heavy and cold, although perfectly symmetrical and complete. I think the genius of ancient Greek artists was in the creation of light and airy buildings despite the use of heavy stone, numerous columns, and huge scale.
Propylaea (The Monumental Gateway)
The Athenian politician and general, Pericles commissioned the Propylaea, the monumental entry gate, in 437-432 BC. This entrance served as a dramatic gateway to sacred space from a secular one. If you go there, it requires a considerable effort walking up the steep stairs. The architect, Mnesicles, transformed this steep & difficult terrain into a beautiful marble entrance in Doric style. The rest of the project remained unfinished due to the Peloponnesian War.
Of the two porches (facades) at either end, only the eastern one exists today. It looks like a Doric temple with a wide opening (intentionally missing a column) in the middle of it. The western porch had two wings. The large one included a picture gallery (pinakotheke), the first known room specially designed for the display of paintings. The central roadway that passes through the Propylaea has Ionic columns. Below is a reconstruction drawing that shows the beauty of the former Propylaea in its full glory.
The Erechtheum (Erechtheion)
According to myths, this exact place under the temple was the sacred place for the Athenians because their goddess, Athena was born here. Erechtheum looks like a much larger and more complex temple than the Athena Nike Temple built by Mnesicles between 421 and 405 BC. It graces over the irregular terrain of a sloping hill. The Erechtheum consisted of four rooms plus the basement. It’s known that the statue of Erechtheus, a king of Athens, once stood in one of the rooms. The eastern room belonged to Athena Polias (Athena the city goddess) with an old statue. The statue of Poseidon occupied another room. There are no statues left there today.
The unusual part about this temple is that the Erechtheum has two porches instead of the facades. The small one is famous for its six figures of Maidens or Caryatids replacing the columns. (Read about the origins of Caryatids here). This temple features beautiful carvings on the columns, windows and door frames that were more expensive to make than the carved figures themselves! It’s located north of the Parthenon in the Acropolis complex.
The Temple of Athena Nike
Dedicated to the goddess and protector of the city, the little temple of Athena Nike was built in Ionic style between 427 and 424 BC from a design created 20 years earlier by Callicrates. Ionic structures existed in small, simple temples at that time and this little temple dedicated to Nike (Victory) is one of such structures in ancient Greece. It guarded the southwest end of the Acropolis since the Mycenaean period (late 13th century BC). The Classical temple was built over the original temple made of porous stone dated after 468 BC. The first temple housed the xoanon, the wooden cult statue of the goddess. A considerable part of this temple and remains of the early shrine (6th cent. B.C.) are preserved in a specially arranged basement space in the Classical bastion.
Built around 410-407 bc, the temple of Athena Nike marble balustrade shows a procession with winged Nikes (Victories), not the Athenian citizens. Seated Athena was added around 415-405 B.C.
The temple’s rich sculptural decoration praises the victorious battles of the Athenians. From the preserved architectural sculptures, it is assumed that the Gigantomachy – the battle between gods and giants – was presented on the east pediment, and the Amazonomachy- battle between Athenians and Amazons on the west. The Ionic frieze, which runs along the upper part of the temple, depicts battles between Greeks and Persians (south side), battles of Greek warriors (hoplites) against other warriors (north and west side), while on the east side the assembly (agora) of the Olympian gods. The corners of the pediments were decorated with gold-plated bronze Nikai (acroteria).
The Nike Fixing her Sandal is a marble relief sculpture of the Greek goddess Nike. It was part of the parapet that decorated the Temple of Athena Nike on the Athenian Acropolis. The sculpture is now in the Acropolis Museum in Athens. In this relief sculpture, a single Nike figure is taking off her sandals to step onto the holy ground of the temple. This artwork speaks of the religious views of ancient Greeks and the artist’s ability to create moving figures in a constrained space.
Sadly, this beautiful monument was torn down during the Ottoman occupation in 1686. The Venetian troops were under the command of General Francesco Morosini storming Athens. So, the temple’s stones were incorporated into the bastion constructed in front of the Propylaia. After the bastion’s demolition in 1835, the temple’s pieces were recovered.
The Theatre of Dionysus Eleuthereus
Greek theater combined music, poems, and dance derived from pagan festival dedicated to Dionysus. Greeks sang songs until 534 bc when the actor, Thespis, introduced spoken texts into the theater. As a result, Greeks began to write plays. And the idea of tragedy as the highest form of drama in theater comes from the philosophy of Aristotle.
This is the place where ancient Greek theatre was born. It originated from the ancient temple of the god Dionysus. Ancient Greeks had a dedicated festival to this god. A festive procession consisted of dancers dressed in animal and satir masks, who sang songs in the god’s honor. The theatrical competition also had additions of comedy and satyr plays later on. Thespis became the founder of the earliest documented tragic play in 534 BC.
The first wooden theatre with seats for the spectators extended over the southern slope of the Athenian Acropolis. Ancient sources mention a wooden framework with huge wooden posts supporting the theatre’s seats. This wooden structure went through renovation and extension to a stage building after the 5th century BC.
Work on Athens’ first monumental stone theatre was interrupted by the devastating Peloponnesian War (431- 404 BC), but continued later with an introduction of a new architectural design, revolving around a circular orchestra. This theatre design became the established design to the present day. The ancient theatre’s capacity was about 17.000-19.000 people!
During the Roman period, the theatre design evolved to become monumental. During the emperor Hadrian’s reign (AD 117-138), the theatre assumed a new role in hosting celebrations of the emperor as a New Dionysus. The stage became decorated with monumental statues personifying three genres of Dedmatic Poetry (Tragedy, Comedy, and Satyrical Play). In addition, thirteen bases for the statues of the emperor were installed among the seats, and honorary thrones led to the emperor’s throne.
In 267 AD, the theatre went through a reconstruction cycle but the national ban of pagan religion brought the theatre to its end just like most other ancient Greek temples.
The Theatre of Dionysus Eleuthereus archeological information
The Odeon of Herodes Atticus
The Odeon of Herodes Atticus was the third amphitheater erected in ancient Athens, after the Odeon of Pericles, also on the South Slope (5th century BC), and the Odeon of Agrippa in the Ancient Agora (15 BC). The Odeon of Herodes Atticus was built in the 2nd century AD with the help of donations made by a wealthy Athenian, Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes, in memory of his wife.
A very expensive project, the conservatory consisted of a porous stone, marble rows of seats, and a cedar wood roof with a 5,000-person capacity. The orchestra had a semicircular shape made of marble 19m in diameter, that repeated the overall semicircular design of the monument. The elevated stage had a 28m wall with 3 floors still standing today. The lower arches used to have Roman statues inside them for decoration purposes. Other decorations included mosaic floors with geometric patterns at all entrances. The eastern side was connected to the Stoa of Eumenes, erected by the king of Pergamon Eumenes (197-159 BC).
The conservatory was destroyed in 267 AD by the Heruli, who burned many buildings in ancient Athens. To read more about this monument, check out the Odeon of Herodes Atticus archeological information in Greece
The Temple of Rome & Augustus
The temple of Rome and Augustus is the sole Roman temple at the Acropolis Hill, and it’s the only Athenian temple dedicated to the cult of the Emperor. The foundations of a small building lay east of the Parthenon attributed to the Temple of Rome and the Roman Emperor Octavian Augustus. There are many scattered marble fragments and the architrave with the incised inscription indicating the existence of this temple dated after 27 B.C. ( Octavian was proclaimed Augustus between 19 and 17 B.C.) The Athenian deme (people) constructed it to appease Octavian Augustus and reverse the negativity surrounding the two parties. (During the Roman civil wars, the city of Athens had supported his opponent, Marcus Antonius).
The architectural fragments suggest that the Temple of Rome and Augustus was of the lonic order, circular and monopteral. It featured a single circular colonnade made of nine columns without a cella. Its diameter measured 8.60 m., and 7.30 m in height. The construction of the temple is associated with the architect who repaired the Erechtheion in the Roman Period, because the architectural details replicate those found at the Erechtheion. The temple probably housed statues of Rome and Augustus, although no fragments of sculptures have been identified to date.
(Writing is based on descriptions seen at the site in the Acropolis).
Τhe Monument of Agrippa
The tall pedestal located west of the Propylaea originally supported a bronze life-size quadriga. This monument was dedicated to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa by the Athenians. Agrippa was the son-in-law and general of the Roman Emperor Octavian Augustus, as well as the benefactor of the city, as indicated by the incised honorary inscription on the western face of the pedestal: The deme ( people dedicated the monument) to Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, thrice a consul, its benefactor. The dedication was made between 27 B.C., when Agrippa became consul for the third time, and 12 B.C., the year of his death.
Standing 8.9 m tall, the pedestal was made of gray Hymmetian and white Pentelic marble. Unfortunately, the quadriga with Agrippa is not there anymore. It’s interesting to note that the original monument was not intended for the Roman general.
The architectural features of the pedestal, the technical details on its upper surface, and traces of previous defaced inscription suggest that the monument appeared in the early 2nd century B.C. It had the chariot of one of the Pergamene kings, probably Eumenes II or Attalus II. The monument commemorated the victory of the Pergamene Kings in a chariot race in the Panathenaic Games. The Pergamene Kings funded the erection of two important public buildings, the Stoa of Eumenes to the south of the Acropolis and the Stoa of Attalus in the Athenian Agora.
(Writing is based on descriptions seen at the site in the Acropolis).
The choragic monument of Nikias
A magnificent choragic monument is situated west of the road between the Sanctuary of Dionysus and the Acropolis. The institution of the Choregy opened in the 6th century B.C. Wealthy Athenians sponsored the rehearsals and performances in the drama-theatrical contests. These events took place in the theatre during the festival of Dionysus in March-April. The winner’s prize for men was a bronze tripod handed over in a ceremony near Dionysus’s sanctuary theatre.
In ancient Greece, a choragus was a wealthy Athenian citizen who paid for festival theatrical productions.
The monument of Nikias looked like a small Greek temple with six Doric columns in front and pediments on its sides. At the end of antiquity (around the 3rd century A.D.), the monument was dismantled to aid in the construction of another monument- the Beulé gate of the Acropolis, named after its excavator. Visitors can still find the original inscription engraved in the center of the architrave of the façade.
It says, “to Nikias, son of Nikodemos, who won teaching the chorus of the boys in the archonship of Neaichmos (320/319 В.С.)”.
The Stoa of Eumenes built 160 years later, respects the position of the choregic monument of Nikias. Scattered architectural parts have been pieced together to view the original position of this building.
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The Areopagus Hill & the Church of St. Dionysios the Areopagite and the Archbishop’s Palace (16th century)
The Areopagus is a rocky hill (115 meters high) next to the Acropolis. In the Mycenaean and Geometric periods (1550-700 B.C.), the northern slope of the Hill was a cemetery with chamber tombs and simple box-shaped graves. Its name probably comes from Ares, the god of war, and the Arai-Erinyes or Semnai (also called the Eumenides), goddesses of punishment and revenge related to the underworld or Arae- female spirits of curses from the underworld.
A judicial body, the Areopagus Council, met on this hill to preside over cases of murder, sacrilege, and arson. The Areopagus was also a place of religious worship with several sanctuaries built on this hill including the Semnai or Eumenides.
Depending on whether a white or a black ball emerged, all the citizens represented by one horizontal row of pinakia were accepted or rejected for jury service that day. If a white ball came out, all citizens in the corresponding horizontal row were selected for jury duty. If a black ball came out, the citizens in that row were rejected. Kleroteria stood at the entrance to every court.
From the 6th century B.C., the Areopagus Hill became a residential quarter, hosting a prestigious district of Melite. Cuttings in the bedrock suggest that the place inhabited many roads, wells, drains, reservoirs, floors, and irregular buildings. Access to this neighborhood was provided by cut-into-the-rock stairways. By the Late Roman period (4th-6th centuries A.D.), four luxury houses, the schools of philosophy, were built over the buildings’ remains.
The Areopagus is also associated with the spread of Christianity in Greece. In 51 A.D. Apostle Paul is said to have taught the Athenians the new religion from the hill’s summit. Among the converts was Dionysios the Areopagite, the patron saint of the city of Athens, who was the city’s first bishop. The remains of a church named in his honor are preserved on the hill’s northern slope.
The church of St. Dionysios the Areopagite was a three-aisled basilica built in the 16th century and destroyed in the earthquake in 1601. The monumental Archbishop’s Palace surrounded the church. This two-story Palace was built between the 16th and 17th centuries and consisted of many rooms, which included warehouses, a kitchen, a dining hall, and two wine presses.
(Writing is based on descriptions seen at the site in the Acropolis).
Ancient gymnasium
Public and private gyms existed in ancient Athens till the late Roman period. The palaestra is the main building of a gymnasium in ancient Greece. It was a large training area for athletes to exercise, box, wrestle, etc. The pankration, a combination of wrestling and boxing, was more dangerous than these sports because athletes were permitted to do anything to their opponent but biting or gouging out the eyes.
The palaestra of the Lykeion covered an area of 0.25 hectares (50 x 48 m). The foundations for a large building were laid in the 4th century BC, although this space was probably used as early as the 6th century BC. The gymnasium complex existed for 700 years until the early 4th century AD.
The palaestra had an inner court (23 x 26 m.) surrounded by three sides of porticoes (3.5 to 4 m. wide). Spacious, rectangular rooms existed behind them built with remarkable symmetry. The Roman architect Vitruvius (1st century BC) describes the Greek palaestra and the space used in detail in his work “On Architecture”. According to his writing, the largest hall in the center of the north side was a lecture hall with seating. To the east and west of this hall, were the rooms where athletes smeared their naked bodies with oil before exercising. The “konisterion or “conistta” was a space filled with sand in which the wrestlers rolled in exercise and tournament. The “korykeion” was another room with leather punch bags filled with flour or sand for young men to punch and exercise.
The northeast part of the court occupied a 4th-century BC well. There was a 1st century AD cistern with apsidal narrow sides, in which athletes took cold baths. The symmetrical bath complexes were a part of the gym’s architectural design. Most of the walls of the building stood on a bedrock and the rooms’ floors were made of beaten earth.
Bronze Foundries in the Acropolis
A foundry site existed not far from the Sanctuary of Asklepios in the 5th-4th century B.C. The 1877 excavations revealed four pits cut into the rock of the Acropolis Hill. These pits were the place of bronze casting in ancient Athens. The two largest, A&B pits are 2.30 meters long. Both pits have stairways and facilities inside.
Foundry A was excavated in 1877 and 1963. Its lower level consists of two facilities that include a rectangular stone base plastered over with clay. A clay channel runs around this structure, ending at each of the four corners with spouts to dispose of the metal waste and the melted wax used in casting. The second facility retains an oval base and a clay channel enclosed by a brick wall. There is an ancillary chamber with a small pit and a clay channel. Foundry D was excavated in 2006. This foundry has a square base of clay-plastered porous plinths at its center. One of its sections preserves a trace of a statue mold, depicting the termination of long garment folds. A brick, 1.30 m long, wall goes along the sides of the foundry.
The archeologists discovered thousands of mold fragments during the excavations here. This was an extensive manufacturing facility that probably made bronze statues for the monuments of the Asklepieion or the Acropolis. Perhaps, this was the place where artists cast the statue of Athena Promachos by Pheidias.
Colors of the ancient Greek Temples in the Acropolis and beyond:
Ever wonder how the Greek temples looked in color? You will probably be quite surprised to see the myriad of bright colors used by the Ancient Greeks in painting their temples. What we see as white and yellowish-white in broken ceilings, facades, and sculptures used to be vivid decorations in blue, red, yellow, and black.
You can also see the reconstructions and examples of color schemes used presented by the Acropolis Museum here: https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/research-programs/archaic-colours
The Academy of Athens
What’s interesting about this building is that it looks like a complete restoration of the original Greek temple. While I wasn’t inside this building, I could actually see beautiful ornamentations and decorations of the building with Apollo and Athena flanking tall columns next to it.
The Academy of Athens is an organization that promotes the arts, humanities, and sciences through research and collaboration. It was founded by Plato in 387 BC but destroyed by Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 86 BC when he conquered the city.
Ancient Greek Language
You can read about the origins of ancient Greek writing, the Linear A & Linear B texts, here
The Stoa of Attalos
Built between 159 and 136 bc, the Stoa of Attalos is a very long, rectangular building with two floors, 20 by 20m long. One of the few restored buildings, it’s located on the east side of the ancient Agora. The stoa was a gift of Attalos II, King of Pergamon, as a fragmentary inscription on the epistyle of its lower colonnade says, “King Attalos, son of Attalos and of Queen Apollonia.” The Stoa of Attalos was a place for the Athenians to meet and socialize.
The ground floor has the exterior colonnade in the Doric order and the interior colonnade built in the Ionic style without fluting. The upper floor exterior has the Ionic colonnade, while the interior has the Pergamene type capitals. The Heruli destroyed it and its ruins were incorporated into the Late Roman Fortification Wall in 267 AD. The restoration, based on the architect John Travlos’ notes, was carried out in 1953-1956 by the American School of Classical Studies, with the financial support of John D. Rockefeller, Jr.
The Library of Pantainos
The Library of Pantainos is located next to the Stoa of Attalos. It consists of a large square room and a paved courtyard, surrounded by three stoas with shops behind their colonnades. In Roman times, it connected to the Roman Agora. According to the inscribed marble lintel block, the library was dedicated to Athena Archegetis, the emperor Trajan, and the Athenian people in the years around 100 A.D. The dedication came from Titus Flavius Pantainos, “a priest of the philosophical muses as well as the son of the head of a philosophical school.”
The library’s rules were inscribed into the building: “No book is to be taken out since we have sworn an oath. The library is to be open from the first hour until the sixth.”
It’s believed that Trajan may have been worshipped inside the library because the archaeologists found broken parts of the sculpture in the ruins. Also, the Library of Pantainos served as one of the philosophical schools of Athens that later became a residence.
Roman Forum of Athens: Heart of Athenian Democracy
Roman Forum is a fairly small place in the heart of Athens that stands on the slope of the Acropolis Hill. You can see some remains of the agora, mainly broken columns and an octagonal tower built by the Romans.
Greek Democracy
The Battle of Marathon was a pivotal event in Athenian history, as it not only defeated the seemingly invincible Persian army but also significantly boosted the development of Athenian democracy and freedom by demonstrating the power of the “demos” (common people) and solidifying their role in governance, leading to a more democratic political system where institutions like ostracism were further utilized to protect democracy. ( Ostracism was a process where citizens could vote to exile a potentially dangerous individual from Athens.) Athens became a powerful force rivaling Sparta. The city-state built the warship fleet under Themistocles to control power over the Aegean Sea. Finally, the victory over the Persians offered the necessary conditions for the supreme development of the intellect and the arts in the classical era.
The Tower of the Winds
Made of Pentelic marble, the octagonal tower, the Horologion of Andronikos, also known as the “Tower of the Winds” or “Aerides” (the blowing winds), is one of few remaining buildings standing near the Roman Agora in Athens built around the 2nd century BC. The edifice has 8 sides with corresponding incised lines of sundials. The frieze above the edifice has the personifications of eight winds or gods with their symbols sculpted in relief, hence the name of the tower.
Created by the architect and astronomer Andronikos of Kyrrhos in Macedonia, the Tower of the Winds has an unusual, octagonal shape. Rising at 13.85 meters high, the octagonal tower has a porous stone foundation and a 3-stepped base. The preserved roof of the building consists of twenty-four slabs and a circular “keystone”. The Corinthian capital above it was probably the base for a Triton, a bronze wind vane. Blue paint covered the inner surface of the roof, one of the few preserved ancient Greek roofs.
When you walk in inside, it’s dark and not welcoming. The walls are oxidized and appear dirty so it’s hard to see some faint 13-14th-century frescoes and decorative colonettes. They were made later on when the tower was converted into a Christian church. These fresco fragments on the tower’s edifice depict an angel (Epitaphios lamentation) and a saint riding a horse. Also, there are traces of ancient wall paintings, such as palmettes, lotuses, and meanders. Finally, there’s the incised Roman ship dating to the 4th century AD and some graphite drawings of sailboats from later years. The original building, however, had an operating hydraulic mechanism that powered (with water pressure) a water clock or a ‘planetarium’ device similar to the Antikythera mechanism. Inside the monument, you can see the holes used to mount the hydraulic mechanism. Some cuttings on the floor were intended for water supply conduits and mechanism isolation.
During the Ottoman occupation, the building was used as a tekke of the Mevlevi order. In 1838-1839, the Archaeological Society at Athens unearthed the entire monument, which was partly buried by then. You can’t pass by this tower if you’re in the area but check the working hours of all archeological sites on Google as Greeks like to close after 2 pm, although this place was open late in the day when we visited it.
The Latrines or Public Bathrooms:
Did ancient Greeks go to the public bathroom? You bet! By walking around the Acropolis, I found a picture with a description of a rectangular building with a lobby and hall. The roofed hall had a bench with round holes in it that stretched along all four sides of the building. The great hall’s center of the latrines didn’t have any roofing for light and ventilation purposes. There was a system of running water that flushed the waste away through a deep peripheral canal to the main drain of the city built around the 1st century AD. It was a real public bathroom made for people visiting the Roman Agora.
Water Supply
Water was often in short supply during the long hot summers of the Mediterranean climate. In towns, people collected rain water in private and public cisterns, or water was redirected by aqueducts from mountain streams. Small fountain-houses fed by piped water from streams were a feature of Greek cities. In the 6th century BC the tyrant Peisistratos renewed the fountains of Athens, and these are shown on
Greek vases of the period.
In Roman times such fountain-houses (nymphaea) were huge architectural complexes, supplied by aqueducts. The remains of aqueducts are found throughout the Roman Empire; these were sophisticated
feats of engineering, bringing water many miles through or around hills and over built-up bridges. Many cities relied on stored water collected during wet weather in underground cisterns. Some Roman town-houses had inward-sloping roofs to direct water into a pool, which overflowed into a cistern below. In town and country many households without access to a spring or fountain relied on wells. Excess water from cisterns drained away into street gutters, through terracotta pipes socketed into one another.
Decorative fountains were often a feature of gardens. They were supplied through lead pipes from high water-towers that also fed public water points in the street. (from the description at the British Museum)
The Library of Hadrian
You can’t pass the Library of Hadrian archaeological site that’s located next door to the old city center. It’s situated on the north side of the Acropolis, near the Roman Agora. Unfortunately, there’s not much left from the rectangular enclosure but the wall with the Corinthian columns. A blend of Greco-Roman styles, it was the library, archive, lecture hall, and cultural center built under the Roman emperor, Hadrian, who loved Greek culture and gifted this library to Athens in 132 AD. The library also had reading rooms, a garden, and a pool.
There used to be a tetraconch church right in the center of the courtyard, built around 410s AD. There’s nothing left but the remnants of the mosaic floor with floral patterns lying in grass and poppy flowers. Two other churches were built over this one after its demolition in the 6th century.
The Spartan battle of Thermopylae
If you’re in Athens and travel to other places around it, you can visit the legendary Thermopylae. Today it’s a field with mountains, grass, and trees. It has a small museum (closes in the afternoon) and a contemporary art sculpture with the warrior dedicated to the battle of Spartans against the Persians.
Three hundred Spartans and seven hundred Thespians under the orders of Leonidas, king of Sparta, decided to fight against the Persians and win or die defending the freedom of their country. According to the historian Herodotus, the Persian army consisted of about one million seven hundred thousand soldiers who were under the command of king Xerxes. The Persians asked the defenders to give their arms up, but Leonidas replied to them with the heroic phrase; "COME AND GET THEM."
The Battle of Thermopylae, fought in 480 BCE, was a pivotal clash between the invading Persian Empire under Xerxes I and a defending force of allied Greek city-states led by King Leonidas of Sparta.
The Persian Empire, under Xerxes, sought to conquer Greece. A Greek alliance was formed to resist the invasion. However, many Greek city-states remained neutral or even sided with the Persians. The Greeks chose Thermopylae, a narrow mountain pass, as a strategic location to defend. The pass offered a choke point where the vast Persian army wouldn’t be able to fully utilize its numerical advantage. King Leonidas of Sparta led a contingent of 300 Spartan warriors, along with approximately 7,000 other Greek soldiers from various city-states. The Spartans fiercely defended the narrow pass for three days, inflicting heavy casualties on the Persians. A Greek traitor named Ephialtes revealed a secret mountain path that allowed the Persians to outflank the Greek position. Knowing they were surrounded, Leonidas dismissed most of the allied Greek forces and led his 300 Spartans, along with some remaining allies, in a suicidal last stand against the Persians. Although the Persians eventually overwhelmed the Greeks, their victory came at a great cost. The Greeks inflicted heavy losses on the Persian army, demonstrating their courage and resistance. This boosted Greek morale for the remaining battles of the Greco-Persian Wars.
The Battle of Thermopylae became a legendary symbol of Greek courage and resistance against overwhelming odds. The Spartans’ sacrifice inspired other Greek city-states to continue fighting the Persians. Although a tactical defeat, Thermopylae bought valuable time for other Greek forces to prepare and ultimately defeat the Persians at the Battle of Salamis.
Travel tips for Athens & Greece:
I must say that it’s almost shocking to see how poor this country is considering the value of Greece’s history and archeological sites. The very center of Athens, like the Monastiraki area, has many dilapidated buildings. The entire city is covered in street ‘art’ writings and many public places close at 2-3pm! Restaurants work, of course, but the country exhibits a perpetual decline. Having said this, the upside surprise is that Greeks speak English very well even at grocery stores. They are helpful and in general, I felt safe walking around Athens.
To visit the Parthenon you must buy your tickets in advance, especially if you go during the season. Buy them before your departure. Every other site is easy to get into. We rented a car and drove around Athens and to Delphi & Holy Meteora. The roads are exceptional but are not free. You’d be stopped to pay a toll every half an hour… Also, people don’t seem to drive cars as the roads are empty. Tourists travel by bus and other transportation. If you want to visit the islands, both the small airplanes and ships work well, although the ships can be canceled because of the weather more often than you think.
Finally, if you’ve traveled a lot around Europe, it’s a fact that there’s not much left from the temples and other archeological sites in Athens and Greece, which could be very disappointing if you are a visual person. While Rome was a ‘copy’ of ancient Greek architecture, built much later, a lot remains in Rome to see, unlike in Greece. Most of Ancient Greece is thoroughly destroyed. To top it off, the Louvre has several rooms filled with exceptional ancient Greek vases and classical sculpture as well. The Met has a large collection of Greco-Roman art, but the archeological museums I visited in Greece were relatively poor in terms of their collection in comparison to these museums. I know many people visit Greece for its sea, sun, and beaches and probably won’t share my opinion about this beautiful country. It’s still worth the visit, of course, but I wish the nation took care of its heritage more.
To read more about ancient Greece’s History:
If you enjoyed this historical exploration, be sure to check out my other videos and articles about ancient Greece!
The Eleusinian Mysteries: A Window into the History of Mystery Religions and Ancient Spirituality
Delve into the enigmatic world of the Eleusinian Mysteries! This video explores the ancient Greek rituals, their connection to the cult of Demeter and Persephone, and the potential role of psychedelic substances like the “kykeon” in inducing altered states of consciousness. We’ll examine the archaeological evidence, historical accounts, and philosophical interpretations of these sacred rites, uncovering the mysteries surrounding death, rebirth, and the pursuit of esoteric knowledge in ancient Greece Although the use of psychedelics is a forbidden topic in our society, ancient cultures have used them for centuries. Join me as I dive deep into the secrets of Demeter’s ancient cult, sacred space and architecture in Eleusis!
Video on Youtube: https://youtu.be/RFUU8yxs5yU
To see pictures of the place and read more: https://veronicasart.com/what-lies-beneath-demeters-ancient-cult-of-eleusinian-mysteries-psychedelics-death-god/
Subscribe & rate this podcast on Spotify and Apple | Show your support for the podcast: here | Host: Veronica Winters, MFA | veronicasart.com
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What is the color white in life & art history?
What is the color white? Is it the titanium white in oil painting? Or is it the color of your skin, feather, cream, silk, snow, kitty, pearls, chess, lace, car, flowers, crystals, swans, wall paint, clouds and the moon? Or is it the white of a happy smile, hope, or the light of your soul? Is it the blinding sunlight, the whiteness of an angel’s wings or purity and innocence of a child?
It seems that white represents no color. Yet, it means so much to us. The bride’s wedding gown. The white glow of the sublime. The ethereal beauty of a white Greco-Roman marble sculpture. White light. White face. White lilies. White room. White staircase. White dove. White snow. It’s either a clean start or cold emptiness. We see unity in the symbolism of white across many cultures but not all. White can mean either a wedding or a funeral.
Video on YouTube: https://youtu.be/mMMiPF6OpQY
Technically, white isn’t a specific “color” like red or blue. When all the wavelengths of visible light are present and reflected by an object, we perceive it as white. In simpler terms, white is “all colors of the rainbow combined.”
What is the color white technically?
The color spectrum & white
All the colors we see exist on the visible light spectrum, a range of wavelengths our eyes can perceive. Each color corresponds to a specific wavelength of light. White is an achromatic color, which means it lacks a “hue.” White light is “all colors combined.” We perceive black when an object absorbs all wavelengths of light instead of reflecting them. An opposite to white, black is the absence of reflected light.
What is the color white in oil & acrylic painting?
While prehistoric art got created with a white chalk made of the mineral calcite, white oil paint has a different composition and history. In oil painting, the ideal opaque white is neither warm nor cool. For generations artists painted with lead white until the 19th century when everything changed. Companies began to mass-produce art supplies including watercolor and oil paint. No more hand-grinding of pigments!
White comes from substances like titanium dioxide, lead carbonate, calcite or zinc oxide. Zinc white has zinc pigments. Flake white is a softer, warmer white that used to have lead in it. Flake white is found in early Chinese painting. Kremnitz white, Venetian white, French white, and Dutch white were also based on lead carbonate and lead hydroxide. Flemish white is based on lead sulfate. Cool color, the Titanium white is the strongest and most opaque white used by most contemporary artists today. A vast majority of the manufactured white pigments don’t have toxic lead in them. However, such paint is a lot more brittle and susceptible to the environmental changes, especially if it’s mixed with the safflower oil and not the linseed oil.
In this painting the artist painted his mistress wearing an airy white dress – Jo Hiffernan with whom he lived for a decade. “The Little White Girl” is one of three Whistler paintings known as “Symphonies in White.” Out of three paintings, I think this one is the most successful because the woman looks real and the white gown is also beautifully painted.
Joyce H. Townsend, Senior Conservation Scientist, Tate, London, and honorary professor in the School of Culture and Creative Arts, University of Glasgow wrote about her experience of seeing the shades of white when old, lemon-yellow varnish got removed in 2021. This varnish removal revealed a range of beautiful, soft whites Whistler painted in the dress that included crimson red lake, red ochre, yellow ochre, blue ultramarine, and bone black, painted over a thinner layer of dark gray, according to the conservation scientist. As you can see, this range of whites got painted to capture the surrounding colors of the model cast from the pink flowers, blue vase and fireplace.
All three paintings were influenced by the Japanese art as the country opened itself in the 19th century. Just like the Impressionists, Whistler took the unusual elements of the Japanese woodblock printing to stylize his art. Artists borrowed cropping, the point of view, flatness of space and emphasis on patterns of color.
A modern invention, acrylic white is a chemical-based paint that’s made of pigment suspended in an acrylic polymer emulsion. It’s also made of plasticizers, silicone oils, defoamers, stabilizers, or metal soaps. Unlike oils, it’s water-based and dries super quickly. Used in house painting, acrylic paint dries to be water-resistant. Some artists love painting with acrylics while others don’t. Unique properties of each paint fit different creative personalities.
What are the shades of white?
While most people don’t think of white having shades, artists and creatives perceive a wide range of subtle variations of white while creating their art. Normally, we don’t see the difference between the shades of white unless we choose a wall paint in a hardware store or look at the neatly stacked rows of clothes in a shop.
White should be neutral, but it’s often either warm or cool. Warm whites have a hint of yellow to create a sense of warmth and coziness. Ivory, eggshell, cream, antique white, vanilla, and beige are the shades of warm white.
Cool whites have a bluish-grey undertone giving a sense of timeless airy feel. Alabaster, pearl, white smoke and snow come to mind describing cool whites. But not all snow scenes are created equal. Some snow scenes have warm, yellowish color and bluish shadows seen under the sun.
Shades of white could also lean towards a specific color like pink, peach or green. Seashell white is a soft, pinkish-white reminiscent of the delicate hues of seashells.
One of my favorite artists is John Singer Sargent. I love his use of bold brushstrokes, color and richness of paint he achieved in his large-scale canvases.
I’ve seen this painting hanging at the entrance to the art museum in Edinburgh, Scotland. The artist painted ultra wealthy individuals and often participated in the arrangement and choice of gowns on his models. According to the museum’s notes, living a lavish lifestyle, Gertrude had to sell several paintings including this one to the National Gallery of Scotland in 1925!
Regardless, I love how fluid and beautiful the white fabric is here. Look at all these shades of white!
Dimensions: 31 1/2 x 20 1/2 inches (80 x 52.1 cm), 1859, Philadelphia Museum of Art
While her face appears artificial lacking life and character I love how the artist painted all these different white garments! They range from neutral white in her robe to a warm white of silk cover to a pinkish white skirt. Also, a single string of white pearls matches the warmth of the silk. The background has some white elements that are greyed down and subdued to bring the figure forward.
The Symbolism of White across Art History
The symbolism of the color white is quite astonishing if we think about it. There are universal associations with this color as well as the nuanced meanings of white depending on culture or context. One color. Two opposite associations.
Positive associations with the color white
In Christianity, white represents purity, innocence, and divinity.
Think of the white angels, white robes of monks and heavenly figures, a white dove or the white lilies of the Virgin Mary.
While the white clothing is ceremonial of passing into another world or Heaven, the ethereal glow of white light represents heaven and the divine, spiritual purity, enlightenment and truth.
White dove or the Holy Spirit is a symbol of peace, forgiveness, hope, and love. In art, it forms the Trinity and flies in rays of sunlight with an olive branch in its beak.
White can symbolize hope, innocence, and royalty in ceremonies.
A white wedding gown means innocence and pure perfection especially of a young bride. White is the color of light and white pearls communicate similar symbolism.
James McNeill Whistler (1834–1903), Symphony in Flesh Colour and Pink: Portrait of Mrs Frances Leyland, Image source: Frick Collection, NY., Henry Clay Frick Bequest, 1916.1.133
White can represent royalty.
In this painting you can certainly admire a perfect balance of color, lines, objects, textures, and symbols captured in one painting. The artist’s composition is a reversed triangle. Both composition and realistic textures are reminiscent of Jan van Eyck’s painting.
French artist, Ingres puts a lot of symbolism into this painting depicting Napoleon as a ruler blessed by God. Napoleon looks like a religious icon. The artist bestows a Roman-like golden laurel crown onto his head and paints a circular-shaped throne behind him to suggest the divine power of the ruler. White ermine fur encircles Napoleon’s neck – the symbol of royalty. The emblem of bees seen throughout the Vatican can be noticed on this lush, red cloak. The golden bees represent immortality and resurrection, while the Eagle represents military might. You can read about the life and work of the artist in a concise book titled “Ingres” by Karin H. Grimme.
White is Heaven.
White in mythology:
In Japanese culture, dragons are guardians of the Buddhist temples and their meaning varies depending on their color. The white dragon, or Hakuryuu, is a water god that controls rainfall and water. White dragons are also associated with great wealth and blessings in marriage.
White as a force in duality of nature:
Yin and Yang is a core concept in the Chinese philosophy that describes two opposing yet interconnected and complementary forces that are believed to underlie all of reality. They represent intertwined aspects of a whole in a dynamic balance within the universe. Famous symbol of yin and yang is the taijitu, a circle divided into two halves, each containing a swirl of the opposite color. The swirl within each half represents the seed of the other force, signifying their interdependence. In art, it often means balance, where white can’t exist without black, just like the sun doesn’t exist without the moon.
Among Neolithic jades of ancient China are bracelets (huan), penannular rings (chüeh), half-rings (huang), a flat disc with a hole in the centre (pi) and a ring or short tube squared on the outside (tsung). In later historic times these shapes acquired a ritual or ceremonial function, the pi and tsung, for example, symbolizing respectively heaven and earth.
(From the book: the arts of China, 3d edition, Michael Sullivan)
White often represents all the light in the world, opposing the black of the darkness.
In this oil painting, “Sirin and Alkonost,” also referred to as “The Birds of Joy and Sorrow,” depicts two beautiful, half-bird, half-woman creatures from Slavic mythology. Sirin, on the right, is typically associated with joy and enchantment, while Alkonost, on the left, brings sorrow and mourning. Their contrasting melodies intertwine, creating a complex and evocative harmony that reflects the duality of human experience. The painting itself is a masterpiece of the Russian Romanticism expressed in symbolism that invites contemplation of life’s emotional range.
The calming power of white:
The calming effect of white is obvious in snowy landscapes, white clouds or cashmere sweater that bring us feelings of peace. Tranquil nature relaxes our mind. Soft, white fabric evokes serenity. And white swans and snowflakes seem magical floating in water.
White can carry a special meaning in objects we often see. For instance, symbolic of new life, a white egg represents birth. Moreover, we can read the Chinese ancient legend about the origins of the world.
“Once upon a time, the universe was an enormous egg. One day the egg split open; its upper half became the sky, its lower half the earth, and from it emerged P’an Ku, primordial man. Every day he grew ten feet taller, the sky ten feet higher, the earth ten feet thicker. After eighteen thousand years P’an Ku died. His head split and became the sun and moon, while his blood filled the rivers and seas. His hair became the forests and meadows, his perspiration the rain, his breath the wind, his voice the thunder-and his fleas – our ancestors.” This legend expresses a Chinese philosophy, that man is not the culminating achievement of the creation, but a relatively insignificant part in the scheme of things; an afterthought. By comparison with the beauty and splendor of the world itself, the mountains and valleys, the clouds and water- falls, the trees and flowers, which are the visible manifestations of the workings of the Tao, he counts for very little.
(From the book: the arts of China, 3d edition, Michael Sullivan)
Period: Qing dynasty (1644–1911), late 18th century, China, silk, metallic thread, 10 3/4 x 11 1/4 in. (27.31 x 28.57 cm), Textiles-Embroidered, Credit Line: Bequest of William Christian Paul, 1929
White hue can also be a symbol of cleanliness. Healthcare facilities have white rooms, corridors, and doctors’ coats.
Contemporary architecture loves the color white. Both interior and exterior spaces have white paint and decorum seen across Florida’s new construction to amplify the light in the region.
White can also represent neutrality or fairness, negotiation or surrender – the white flag of surrender.
This neoclassical painting has a very careful, classical design both in color and lines. Marat was a revolutionary in France and a friend of the artist. David was also a radical thinker and revolutionary who was once an official court painter to Napoleon but ended up in prosecution and escape from France to Belgium closer to the end of his life.
Marat’s skin condition made him take long baths to soothe the pain where he got assassinated. This painting represents the ideals of neoclassical art and politics- simplicity, heroism, idealization, classicism, neutrality and stoicism. Color white helps communicate these virtues.
In modern art, white can symbolize a fresh start, an open canvas, or a space for interpretation. White is neutral, blank canvas. Artists like Robert Rauschenberg and Agnes Martin explored this potential in their monochromatic white paintings. Rauschenberg first painted his white canvases in 1951 in six variations, one to seven panels. Martin spent her 40-year career exploring the perception of stillness.
White means innocence.
White as the representation of timelessness & memory
Negative white
Depending on our view of the world, specific events or cultural differences we can see the color white as cold, empty and artificially sterile. This kind of emotionless, stark white can trigger feelings of isolation, and emptiness. Moreover, white can be associated with mourning and death in some countries.
White ghosts scare us, representing the supernatural and death.
White can also represent death. White shroud symbolizes death, mourning, and loss.
“In this panel Bosch shows us the last moments in the life of a miser, just before his eternal fate is decided. A little monster peeping out from under the bed–curtains tempts the miser with a bag of gold, while an angel kneeling at the right encourages him to acknowledge the crucifix in the window. Death, holding an arrow, enters at the left.
Oppositions of good and evil occur throughout the painting. A lantern containing the fire of Hell, carried by the demon atop the bed canopy, balances the cross which emits a single ray of divine light. The figure in the middle ground, perhaps representing the miser earlier in his life, is shown as hypocritical; with one hand he puts coins into the strongbox where they are collected by a rat–faced demon, and with the other he fingers a rosary, attempting to serve God and Mammon at the same time. A demon emerging from underneath the chest holds up a paper sealed with red wax — perhaps a letter of indulgence or a document that refers to the miser’s mercenary activities.
This type of deathbed scene derives from an early printed book, the Ars Moriendi or “Art of Dying,” which enjoyed great popularity in the second half of the fifteenth century. The panel may have been the left wing of an altarpiece; the other panels — now missing — would have clarified the meaning of some aspects of the scene, such as the discarded and broken armor and weapons in the foreground.” Taken from the gallery’s page https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page.41645.html
Empty white rooms can feel lonely and even scary.
Blindfolded figures often represent ignorance, inability to see, and vulnerability, but the blindfolded Lady Justice has a different meaning. The blindfold represents that justice is unbiased and should not be influenced by a person’s appearance or other factors.
1648–56, the Met, New York. http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/423841
Whitewashing is a term denoting the covering up of unpleasant truth, describing censorship.
As you can see the color white carries several meanings and rich symbolism in art history and our life. What do you think of white?
PS If you see a mistake in this article, please know it’s not intentional. Reach out with the suggested correction to nika@veronicasart.com
The Color White in Contemporary Art
The infamous fate of some famous artists
All artists strive for acceptance and appreciation. However, the meaning of appreciation may be unique to each artist. Many painters want to win in shows or receive recognition via art sales as a fair validation of their talent and hard work. I don’t think anyone wishes to perish in obscurity without the proper acknowledgment of his or her gift.
How famous artists became famous
It’s interesting to learn that numerous famous artists admired today often struggled both financially and emotionally. Riveted by poverty and seclusion, they lived the creative life in obscurity. Studied in art history classes, admired in art museums, and owned by some wealthy art collectors today, many famous artists were often unknown or underrated during their lifetime. Only after their death, sometimes decades later, do they find proper recognition in contemporary society.
If we look back at the art history before the 19th century, the vast majority of artists worked on public paintings commissioned by the Church, the State, and the mega-wealthy. Most of the recorded artists were male, with very few female artists immortalized on the pages of art history books.
The birth of new art movements
In 19th-century Paris, the Salon was the most prestigious venue for exhibiting contemporary realist art. Sponsored by the French authorities, the Salon has been the annual event since 1737.
The Paris Salon, officially known as the Salon de Paris, was a prestigious art exhibition held annually (and later biennially) from 1667 to 1974. It was a major platform for artists to showcase their work and gain recognition, especially in the 18th and 19th centuries. Some famous artists who exhibited at the Paris Salon were Ingres, David, Delacroix, and Manet.
It was the only important exhibition in the country. Receiving acceptance into its annual show was crucial to the artist’s success and career. The Salon’s jury process was overseen by the most talented and skilled Academicians, who selected the art for the show. Despite its authority and beautiful art, the academy produced, it resisted innovation in classical art. This time period became a place of change when several new art movements emerged. As the importance of getting commissions from the Church and the State disappeared around that time, it catapulted artistic creativity and freedom of expression.
The Impressionists broke away from the classical tradition and became the first modern movement to organize their own, separate shows in Paris. Degas was one of the leaders in this organization. The Russian classical school of painting branched out to the Itinerants movement in the late 19th century. The art world exploded with new art styles and movements. The traditional, academic style of painting was suddenly losing its ground to impressionism, post-impressionism, neoclassicism, romanticism, social realism, American realism, the pre-Raphaelites, pointillism, symbolism, art nouveau, and even photography. It continued well into the 20th century with the freedom of artistic expression in Fauvism, Cubism, Expressionism, European avant-garde, Surrealism, Futurism, Dada, collage, fantasy, abstract expressionism, and so on.
Famous artists who died before becoming famous
If we go back to the 19th-century art, although artists became independent from the State and the Church, which dramatically changed the subject matter and the painting style, many lived in extreme poverty. The amateur painter, Vincent Van Gogh (1853-1890), struggled both financially and emotionally throughout his life, and only his brother Theo recognized and supported his talent.
Classically trained Antoine-Jean Gros (1771-1835) started brilliantly with his painting Napoleon in the Pesthouse at Jaffa, 1804, but drowned himself in a river after 30 years of haunting criticism and artistic failure that followed close to the end of his life.
An engraver, painter, and poet, William Blake (1757-1827) was discovered only a century after his death. French realist artist, Honoré Daumier (1808-1879), painted most of his life, but received recognition as a painter during his first solo show at the age of 70. He created satire-like imagery, laughing at the wealthy and politicians, among others.
Driven by the need to paint, Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) abandoned his family, left France, and spent his last years in Tahiti. A cocktail of poverty, alcoholism, and syphilis brought him death at the age of 55. His fusion of symbolic imagery with the post-impressionist style became influential only after his death, discovered and promoted by the influential art critic in Paris.
If you’re interested in the events and relationship of two famous artists- van Gogh and Gauguin, read The Moon and Sixpence, written by W. Somerset Maugham, which is based on true events.
One of the most influential painters of modernity, Cézanne (1839-1906), had submitted his artwork to the Salon in Paris for 20 consecutive years. His paintings were not accepted into a single show, even once. Self-taught, the post-impressionist painter, Paul Cezanne, enjoyed the process of painting in isolation. Out of frustration, with introspection, and in search of perfection, Cezanne had a habit of throwing away his now-famous paintings, creating art in the country. Like a number of artists, Cezanne had a very difficult relationship with his father, who wanted the artist to become a lawyer. Like so many painters, Cézanne got famous after his death. Today, his artwork sells for millions of dollars per painting. The Gulf nation of Qatar purchased Paul Cézanne’s painting The Card Players (the 5th version) for a record-breaking $250 million. (By the way, there are more Cezannes in Philadelphia than in France, because of private collections’ acquisitions.) One day, the painter got ill after being out in a thunderstorm. Cezanne spent his last few days of life painting, achieving what he always wanted to do – to paint until the end…
Innovation is often rejected at the beginning of a big trend. It takes time for the majority to catch up to trends that eventually become mainstream or fashionable. An artist’s success is rarely accidental. Yes, it could be a ton of hard work, but mostly it’s the ability to social climb or to be able to connect to the influential people in the field, promoting yourself tirelessly.
Salvador Dali (1904-1989) wasn’t social, but he kept his career in the trusted hands of his wife, muse, and promoter- Gala. Wildly successful, Dali worked across continents and media to create personal art.
Andy Warhol (1928-1987) was a successful social climber who recognized the power of celebrity and often depicted celebrities in his silkscreens as part of the Pop Art movement.
Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) knew how to attract attention to his art using his personality and connections. For instance, young Picasso immersed himself in the Parisian art scene in the early 1900s. A city already buzzing with artistic innovation and experimentation, the artist actively participated in the art scene, befriending other artists and showcasing his work in various art galleries. This exposure fostered connections and helped him gain recognition within the art community [Source: Ian Leslie, “The Picasso Effect”]. Later, Picasso took a leading role in the Cubist movement, which attracted lots of attention. The artist also developed strong relationships with some influential art dealers like Ambroise Vollard and Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, who actively promoted and exhibited his work, contributing significantly to his commercial success and public recognition [Source: Museum of Modern Art, “Picasso and the Avant-Garde in Paris”].
Therefore, while we can admire the skill and creativity of each artist, a successful career is a lot more than just having a talent. Artist’s presence in a creative environment, dedication, extraversion, and the support of key individuals within the art world can either propel the artist to the top or leave him at the bottom of desperation and poverty.
Originally published in 2012
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Talent & Art: Dali Theater Museum in Figueres, Spain
Review of the Dali Museum in Spain
There’s no doubt that Salvador Dali is one of the greatest 20th-century surrealist artists. Up to this day the artist defines every exhibition and art review dedicated to the surrealist movement. Although, the artist was bold to exit the group to develop his vision further, Dali was the leading figure in the surrealism movement. His surreal paintings are in numerous art collections and museums today, however if you look at his humble artistic beginnings, they were truly humble.
In the art museum located in Figueres, Spain I saw a number of his early paintings that closely resembled Picasso, Signac, Matisse and even some abstract painters. Dali’ early paintings were imitations of the modernists that showed no obvious “talent” or ability to become the famous artist. I dare to say that he made a bunch of bad paintings in his early career!
In his next period his work became quite consistent in theme and style but his paintings still lacked contrast, color, strong composition, and his unique subject matter he eventually developed and became famous for. His paintings of figures made of stones expressed his search for his voice as well as his desire to learn classical oil painting technique working from life. He made set ups of stones to paint from them like any realist artist would do. In the pictures below you can see Dali’s attempts to paint his unique ideas from life.
The art museum doesn't have many famous paintings inside. I think most of them are in private art collections and art museums in the US and Europe. However, it gives a good overview of his early career and experimentation before arriving at his famous surrealist art style.
Salvador Dali surrealist jewelry in Spain
While the Dali Theater-museum in Figueres doesn’t display top art collection of Salvador Dali painting, a surprising gem is a separate building of the museum filled with surreal jewelry pieces! Dali’s talent and vision manifests itself in his original, animated jewelry. It combines the use of painting, metals, precious stones and built-in mechanisms to animate jewelry pieces, creating a surreal feeling. In his surreal jewelry we see emotion of the beating Ruby heart. We can watch an icon-like piece with an opening and closing door. There is a revolving, sparkling cornstalk with flapping angel’s wings.
It’s not enough to have a talent. Over the years I had a chance to teach art to numerous wonderful students, including several super-talented high school students who could have become skillful artists someday. None of them went to an art college after graduation for various reasons. Talent itself isn’t a prerequisite to have a successful artistic career. Talent doesn’t equal to an obsessive desire to succeed as an artist. There are lots of people with artistic talents who are not strong enough to push themselves forward when it gets really tough. There is not enough introspection and drive. Those artists can create to the point of meeting requirements only, and leave the profession way before they can develop fully to succeed. While it looks like a negative statement, obsessiveness becomes a necessity in creative profession to overcome daily challenges. It also enforces perseverance, develops social skills and builds goals along the way. Artists become artists when they understand that they can’t live without the very process of art creation.
By looking at the Dali’s career trajectory we must consider our own impatience with ourselves and what talent means in short term and in the long run. If he gave up in the beginning of his career, he wouldn’t be famous surrealist painter making history today. When I browse through my files of old artwork, I can’t believe the fact that I can paint so much better today. Improvement is not instant. There is no magic dust in the process of learning. It’s all about steady work and commitment to the art form. We all want to have quick results, but to get there patience with yourself is a requirement. When students call me to study art, I don’t look at their “talent.” While Talent will be developed and cultivated, I teach art because people need art education. Art, theater and music are about introspective work and emotion. Society values merchandise over experiences. Public school is largely about cranking formulas and testing. There are not enough classes to feed the soul. I simply wish to expend my students’ worldview with art because talented kids is the future.
Dali museum in Spain: https://www.salvador-dali.org/en/museums/dali-theatre-museum-in-figueres/ (If you decide to visit this museum, be aware that the tickets are sold by day and time due to great popularity and a constant influx of people. Plan ahead and buy them online to ensure your visit.)
Dali museum in St.Pete, Florida:
Further reading: https://veronicasart.com/dali-art-surrealism-symbolism-at-the-museum-in-st-petersburg/
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Learn what makes a painting great: Video #1 Part 1
In the first video in the series you’ll learn about some of the greatest works of art, art movements, ideas and artistic elements. This video will help you understand and appreciate the qualities of great art, especially painting created before the 20th century.
Video Notes:
Overview:
Art Movements 0:42
Art Patrons 1:49
Art Education & female artists 2:21
Why do artists create art? 3:26
Artistic Elements : Story & Subject
Story & Subject 4:29
Biblical Scenes 5:16
Historical & Mythological Painting 9:03
Formal Portraiture 14:42
Landscape art 20:33
Genre art & Dutch still life 23:13
Next video: Video #1 | Part 2
In my next video you’ll learn about major artistic elements that artists use to design their paintings. They include composition, emotion, color, and the use of shapes, space and some painting techniques.
Complete video series:
Video #1 Part 1 – Learn what makes a painting great – you’re here!
Video #1 Part 2 – Learn what makes a painting great, part 2
Video #2 Contemporary Art
Video #3 How to take care of your art collection – coming soon!
Video #4 How to frame art
Video # 5 Why you don’t need an interior designer to buy and display art in your home – coming soon!
Bibliography:
The Metropolitan Museum of art, http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection
History of Art, 5th edition, H.W. Janson
The gilded age, E. Prelinger
Rhythmic Form in Art by Irma Richter, Dover Publications
Wikipedia & tons of art history classes in college! 🙂
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19th Century Russian Artists and Genre Art: the Itinerants movement that changed the landscape of Russian classical art
As Russian art is not studied in most art history classes in the U.S., I’d like to introduce you to the Peredvizhniki movement – a group of Russian realist painters that appeared in the mid 19th century to question the predominance and value of Russian classical painting. Peredvizhniki translate as the “movers” or “trailblazers”.
19th century is a fascinating time period in the art history of the Western Europe. Both the Church and the State lost their former influence in the patronage of the arts, which allowed for the birth and development of several new artistic movements in Europe. While Russian art remained quite reserved, developing new ideas slowly, it did break away from the cold Academic painting by embracing the depiction of common people and the countryside in Russia.
Peredvizhniki (the itinerants) organized as a group in 1863. Similar to the Impressionists in France, the group of male artists organized traveling shows exhibiting their new work. They painted the common folk like serfs in the countryside, Russian landscape, and portrait art. Their goal was simple. Russian artists wanted to bring the arts to its people. They refused to depict the Bible scenes and Greek mythology, and focused on painting the world around them instead. They often showed inequality between the rich and the poor, the noble men and the inferior women. They also brought to people’s attention a widespread abuse of children, who often engaged in hard, manual labor. As a result of such movement, Russian art preserved its traditional approach to painting in terms of the oil painting technique but considerably changed its themes.
19th-century Russian Genre Art
Here are some famous Russian genre paintings completed by the Peredvizhniki movement.
Ilya Repin (1844-1930)
Ilya Repin grew up in poverty and hardship, living among the military as his father served in the military. He showed passion for the art at 13 and began to take art classes at a studio of a local artist. Soon, he became so good that he received commissions to paint the icons, which gave him financial freedom to fulfill his dream. In 1863 the artist travels to St. Petersburg to study art at the Academy. Not admitted the same year, he works on his drawing to get admission the next year. Repin becomes quick at gathering medals and awards for his studies and achieves great success with his final Academic project. At the same time he completes a commissioned piece – “Barge haulers.” After his travels in France, he comes back home to paint with the Itinerants.
Repin believed in moral and social purpose in his art and painted peasant life like no other artist of his time. He depicted daily struggles and overwhelming poverty of workers and peasants who lived in stark contrast to well-dressed high society of the Imperial Russia. In this painting of Barge Haulers we see the never-ending bank of the Volga river where the blinding sun is as strong as the people below it.
Pavel Fedotov (1815-1852)
Pavel Fedotov was born in a large and poor family in Moscow and spent his childhood years among his neighbors. His parents put him into the cadet corps at eleven years of age where the artist showed himself as a brilliant student. He began to sketch the caricatures of his teachers and teacher aids on the pages of his notebooks. When he graduated as the ensign of the Finnish regiment, he was found of music and poetry, translated articles from German and sketched his friends. Being very poor, he couldn’t participate in his friends’ parties and continued to work on portraiture and caricature. After a considerable conviction of his friends, he left the service and entered the Academy to study art.
His art instructors doubted his talent because Fedotov ignored the academic principles of battle painting composing horses and soldiers, and spent his evenings painting genre scenes remembered from his childhood. The artist lived in modest conditions, sending part of his service pension to his family back home. However, his sense of humor never let him give up on himself and eventually his talent got noticed by a famous Russian fabulist Ivan Krylov, who wrote him a letter asking to give up the Academy and work on his genre painting.
Pavel Fedotov left the Art Academy, and in 1847 showed his first painting “Just knighted. Morning of the official who received his first cross.” The artist loughs at a proud clerk who is shown after his party, living in devastating poverty. The second painting “The Picky Bride” followed the same year to impress his former teachers from the Academy.
The artist exhibited his masterpiece titled “The Matchmaking of a Major” in 1848 that prompted him an honor award of the Academician. He depicts a beautiful bride running out of the living room as soon as she saw her future groom appear in a doorway. Richly dressed, her mother catches the bride by her gown. This paining brought the artist fame and financial success. Fedotov wished to travel to England to study genre art, but his friends noticed a change in the artist in 1852. Soon, he was placed in the asylum where he died the same year.
In his short life, the artist left tremendous legacy in Russian art by opening a new direction in Russian genre painting. Most of his oil paintings, sketches and portraits can be seen at the State Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow today.
Vasily Perov (1834-1882)
Vasily Perov received his school education from a local deacon, who taught the boy math, language and the Bible. The boy showed great success in calligraphy and his teacher named him Perov (‘Pero’ sounds similar to a ‘feather’ in Russian). Perov’s parents didn’t allow their son to enter a local art school, but let him take some private art lessons. Thanks to one of his relatives, Perov enters the art school later in 1852 and studies there to receive awards. After his graduation, he spends two years in Paris but ‘unable to paint anything worthwhile’ in his words, he begs the Academy to let him come back home. (Best artists received scholarships to spend 1-2 years in Western Europe after their graduation at the Academy).
Besides masterful portraits, Perov paints great genre paintings that capture the reality of Russian life and its people. His art explores the disparity between the rich and the poor as well as the hypocrisy of the church clergy. Despite his fantastic abilities and successful exhibitions, the artist didn’t consider himself worthy of attention. He lived modestly and died in poverty. Most of his paintings can be viewed at the State Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow today.
In this painting, the artist shows an indifferent policeman sitting and smoking over a dead body of a poor woman (presumably a prostitute) that happened so often that the officials expressed no interest in the lives of the disadvantaged.
There are more Russian artists who contributed to the legacy of Russian art in the Itinerants movement that included Ivan Kramskoy, Vasiliy Polenov, Vasiliy Surikov, Vladimir Makovsky, Mikhael Klodt, etc. Female painters were nonexistent until the 20th century Russia.
To continue reading about the 19th-century Russian portrait painting, please follow this link: https://veronicasart.com/19th-century-russian-art-and-portrait-painting-eyes-are-the-window-to-the-soul/
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