Delve into the enigmatic world of the Eleusinian Mysteries! This video explores the ancient Greek rituals, their connection to the cult of Demeter and Persephone, and the potential role of psychedelic substances like the “kykeon” in inducing altered states of consciousness. We’ll examine the archaeological evidence, historical accounts, and philosophical interpretations of these sacred rites, uncovering the mysteries surrounding death, rebirth, and the pursuit of esoteric knowledge in ancient Greece.
The Eleusinian Mysteries: A Journey into Altered States of Consciousness in Classical Greece
If you come to Eleusis you’ll never die.
What secrets did the ancient cult of Demeter hold that still captivates us today? Join me as I dive deep into the secrets of Demeter’s ancient cult and try to uncover the Eleusinian Mysteries!
The sanctuary of Eleusis is a town about 14 miles northwest of Athens today. This place was of vast importance to the spiritual life of ancient Greeks. Pagan culture was the origin of the pre-Christian faith in ancient Greece, as thousands of people attended the Eleusian Mysteries in the fall equinox. In their secret rituals, ancient people worshiped Demeter, the goddess of nature and agriculture, with her daughter, Persephone from 1500 BC until 392 AD. During the peak of the ceremonies, thousands of initiates would consume the kykeon drink, believed to be a mixture of wine, barley, and possibly hallucinogenic substances such as ergot ( LSD), leading to a sense of collective experience and unity among the followers of goddess Demeter. The communion with spirits was a secretive ceremony and transformative experience in relationship to death and rebirth. Aristotle said that people came to Eleusis not to learn something but to experience something. Today, the sanctuary is a small place of broken stones and columns with an adjacent museum showing some pottery, computer installations, and antiquities found during the excavations.
The temple of Eleusis & cult of Demeter, broken parts of the outer colonnade portico depicting the cult symbols of Demeter – rosette, corn, ritual vessel “kern”, and a dedicated inscription. Photo: Veronica Winters
The Eleusinian Mysteries: Historical Mysteries and the Search for Lost Knowledge
The pagan ritual of the sanctuary appeared in the Mycenaean Era (16th-13th BC) to end around the 4th century AD.
Triptolemos and Persephone, tondo of a red-figure Attic cup, ca. 470 BC–460 BC. Notice, that Triptolemos is riding a chariot with winged snakes. More on that below.
The Eleusinian Mysteries and the Cult of Demeter: A Study of Death, Rebirth, and the Afterlife in the Greek Myth of Demeter & Persephone
Lower part of a marble relief with two goddesses Demeter and Persephone, Roman, 1st–2nd century CE, Adaptation of the Great Eleusinian Relief of ca. 450–425 B.C. Pentelic marble relief found in Eleusis. The altarlike incense burner between them must be an addition of the Roman copyist. http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/251527
Dressed in rich, tyrian purple clothes, Demeter, the goddess of the harvest, had a beautiful daughter named Persephone. One day, while picking flowers that made her unconscious, Persephone was abducted by Hades, the god of the underworld. Demeter, heartbroken and distraught, searched for her daughter in vain. As a punishment to Zeus who gave her daughter away to his brother, she neglected the earth, causing crops to wither and die. Zeus, the king of the gods, intervened and negotiated a compromise with Hades. Persephone ate the seeds of pomegranate and would spend six months of the year in the underworld with Hades and the other six months on Earth with her mother. This myth explains the cycle of seasons: when Persephone is with Demeter, the earth flourishes, representing spring and summer. When she is in the underworld, the earth becomes barren, symbolizing autumn and winter.
Marble relief of Triptolemos, Demeter and Persephone. Archaeological Museum of Eleusis, Greece. | Photo: Veronica Winters
The winged serpent or snake
The term “Ophis Pterotos” (Ὄφις Πτερωτός) literally translates to “Winged Serpent” in ancient Greek. In ancient Greek myths we can see some chariots run by the snakes (Medea in a chariot, Cleveland Museum of Art) or Triptolemos riding a winged snake chariot here.
Some scholars suggest that the Winged Serpent was more of a philosophical and mystical concept rather than a specific mythological beast. It embodied ideas of wisdom, transformation, and the ability to transcend physical limitations – much like the snake’s ability to shed its skin and seemingly be reborn. The winged snake represented divine wisdom, transformation, immortality and transcendence. It signified the connection between earthly and divine realms, which makes a lot of sense in terms of the Eleusian Mysteries.
The snake also associated with mystical and philosophical concepts, being depicted in the caduceus of Hermes (the herald’s wand with two intertwined snakes) and connected to concepts of healing and regeneration as Asclepius (the god of medicine) was often depicted with a snake. Influenced by ancient Greek culture, the Romans copied and adopted art, symbols and myths. In Roman times the snake symbol represented Immortality. We can view many golden bracelets in the shape of a snake in archeological museums.http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/254270 : Attributed to the Niobid Painter, Terracotta hydria: kalpis (water jar), ca. 460-450 B.C., Terracotta, H. 10 15/16 in. (27.7 cm); diameter 8 7/8 in. (22.6 cm); width with handles 10 15/16 in. (27.8 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Rogers Fund, 1941 (41.162.98) The Niobid Painter is famous for depictions of mythological scenes on large pots. In this smaller pot, the artist depicts Triptolemos dispatched by the goddess Demeter, the patroness of fertility and agriculture, and her daughter, Persephone, to teach the cultivation of grain to humanity. Winged chariot is run by snakes.
The Eleusinian Mysteries: Historical Mysteries and the Search for Lost Knowledge:
While there are no direct sources about the secrets behind the Eleusian Mysteries, several writers mention the secrecy of rites, like the Homeric Hymn to Demeter. It’s a recording of Persephone’s abduction by Pluto and how Demeter searched for her daughter. A poem of about 500 verses, titled the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, was recorded around 600 BC. Sophocles, Herodotus, Aristophanes, and Plutarch, mention the Eleusinian Mysteries, often alluding to their transformative power and the sacred knowledge imparted to initiates. Philosophers like Plato and Aristotle also reference the Mysteries.
“Ancient Greeks had no holy books. Religion was taught through the act of worship. The essence of the Mysteries was individual initiation once in a lifetime. Those who chose to participate in the process were guaranteed happiness after death. The secretive nature of the mystery has resonated with metaphysical trends from Antiquity to the Renaissance and from Romanticism to the New Age movements.” – The Archaeological Museum of Elefsina
Ten marble fragments of the Great Eleusinian Relief, Roman copy of Greek original, 27 BCE–14 CE . The ten fragments have been set into a cast of the original relief. The original marble relief was unearthed at the site of the Eleusinian mysteries. There are several existing Roman copies of this relief. One of the copies is displayed in a dark interior space of the archeological museum in Eleusis.
Here the goddess of agriculture, Demeter, holds a scepter and stands on the left. She’s dressed in classical Greek clothing – peplos and himation (cloak). Her daughter, Persephone, is on the right of the relief. According to Greek myth, she is the wife of Hades, the god of the underworld. She wears a chiton and himation. Both goddesses reach out to a nude boy, Triptolemos who was a student of Demeter and the first man to learn the mystic rites, rituals, and grain production. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/248899Triptolemos | http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/254912 : Attributed to the Troilos Painter, Terracotta hydria (water jar), ca. 490 B.C., Terracotta, H. 14 1/16 in. (35.7 cm); diameter mouth 6 in. (15.3 cm); diameter foot 5 1/4 in. (13.3 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Fletcher Fund, 1956 (56.171.53)
Demeter was worshiped for roughly 2000 years celebrating life as over 60% of Greeks died from disease, violence, slavery, and hardship. Nearly half of the children died before the age of 5. Greeks asked Gods for good harvests to survive. Therefore, Triptolemos was the messenger of the goddess helping people grow grain. He was often shown as an adult riding a winged chariot on Athenian vases as you can see here.
The image of a Greek Sphinx is depicted on a funerary vase found in Eleusis. Sphinxes were the symbolic guardians of the underworld and vases contained bones of children who probably died because of famine in Eleusis. Eleusis Museum, Photo: Veronica Winters
The Archeology of the Eleusinian Mysteries: A Study of Sacred Space and Ritual
In Mycenaean Eleusis (16th-13th BC), grave offerings were made of precious metals that indicated the deceased’s status. These were bronze weapons and tools, or silver and gold jewelry. In contrast, in the Mycenaean world, schematic figurines with arms folded or raised (Ф – type or Ψ – type) are found in abundance. They are considered symbols of a protective female deity or as children’s toys.
Examples of the Mycenean era excavations
The Antiquarian Society of Dilettanti made the first scientific investigations of the Eleusinian Sanctuary during Ottoman rule. Sir William Gell and the architects John Peter Grandy and Francis Redford led an expedition to Eleusis in 1812 and found the remains of the Telestirion.
Leadership & support of the Sanctuary of Eleusis in ancient Greece: Athens’ leaders supported its relationship with the Eleusinian Sanctuary for economic and political reasons and used the prestige of the Eleusinian Mysteries in their diplomacy. During the Roman period, the Sanctuary emerged as a religious and political center of universal importance. The Roman emperors, who were initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, favored the Sanctuary greatly. For instance, during the reign of Hadrian, Antoninus the Pious, and Marcus Aurelius, the sanctuary experienced a wave of new construction with monumental architecture, including the Great Propylaia, triumphal arches, Temple of Propylaia Artemis, and paved entrance courtyard with the fountain.
The end: With the arrival of Christianity and the decree issuance of Emperor Theodosius I, in 392 AD, the worship of Goddess Demeter ceased to exist with a permanent closing of the sanctuary of Eleusis. The hordes of Alaric, in 395 AD, leveled it to the ground and killed the last Hierophant (priest) there.
The Eleusinian Mysteries: Did the Ancient Greeks Use Psychedelics to Achieve Transcendence in sacred ceremonies of the cult of goddess Demeter?
You died before you died and so didn’t die.
According to the museum, the beginning of the cult or worship emerged in the late geometric period. The oracle of Delphi ordered the Athenians to offer sacrifices to the goddess Demeter after a great famine spread throughout Greece in the 8th century BC. The sacrifice would appease the goddess to make the land fertile again. This oracle was given during the 5th Olympiad (760 BC).
Sacred ceremonies or the Eleusinian Mysteries were a multi-day, series of initiations into the cult of Demeter and Persephone that took place in absolute secrecy. It was the culminating experience of a lifetime. The first initiation began in Athens and then the procession continued in Eleusis through the Sacred Way as a journey. People of all classes participated in it including Emperors, free men, prostitutes, and slave men. ThisEleusinianRoad is an ancient road that began at the Sacred Gate of the Athenian wall and ended at the sanctuary in Eleusis. The religious procession to Eleusis used this road decorated with gardens, fruit trees, country shrines, altars, cemeteries, and funerary monuments set along the ancient path. They passed through a purposefully narrow bridge as a symbolic space between worlds of life and death.
Painted terracotta votive plaque, Attic work by a painter named Ninion, mid-4th century CE, discovered at the sanctuary of Eleusis. Image:wikimedia commons
The figures sit in two rows. At the top, Demeter is seated on the “secret cist”. Persephone stands holding a torch and the torchbearer Iakchos is located below, welcoming the procession of initiates, men and women, who arrive at the sanctuary. In the middle of the lower row, the omphalos adorned with a crown and two crossed bakchoi, symbols of the ritual mysteries. The third deity, at the bottom right, is not identified with certainty. The pediment depicts the participants of the pannychis, the night feast, where a flute player, on the left, accompanies them. All the participants are crowned and hold flowering branches and sticks, while the women have the kernos, the sacred vessel, fixed on their heads. National Archaeological Museum, Athens.
The Role of Sacred Plants in the Eleusinian Mysteries: A Psychedelic Perspective
The Eleusian Mysteries consisted of a pagan ritual with the body’s purification, procession to the Telesterion, consumption of kykeon, and profound revelations following afterward.
Painted terracotta votive plaque, Ninion, mid-4th century CE, discovered at the sanctuary of Eleusis. The women (priestesses?) have the kernos, the sacred vessel, fixed on their heads.
The use of psychoactive substances is a debatable subject because there is no direct archeological evidence of the use. However, the magic potion seems to be the hidden truth behind the secret rites. It’s based on the extensive research of several scholars including Carl Ruck, an American professor who researched entheogens’s role in mythology and religion and first shared his research in a book “The Road to Eleusis” in 1978. Some psychoactive plants are known for inducing altered states of consciousness, letting people experience a fundamental change in psychic to communicate with God.
“The Road to Eleusis” book discusses psychoactive entheogens and the original meaning of some ancient Greek myths and gods, especially Dionysus, the God of Wine. The authors narrate the hypothesis of a magic drink potion recipe that could have contained ash mixed with other ingredients. The drink had a secret formula but was fairly easy to make every year regardless of the harvest. There is a chapter in this book dedicated to a narration of a beautiful Hymn to Demeter, an anonymous poem from the 7th century BC. In this poem, we learn about Persephone picking flowers in the fields of Nisa before the abduction. The companion of the maiden was named Pharmacia with the name’s translation as ‘the use of drugs”. In the book, the authors think that Persephone had a drug-induced seizure during the abduction by Hades.
In his book, “The Immortality Key”, Brian Muraresku shares his research about sacred beverages consumed during the Eulesian mysteries. He studied ancient pots that revealed traces of hallucinogenic substances like ergot (LSD) in beer potions. Fragments of ergot were discovered in a temple and within the dental calculus of an individual, suggesting its consumption.
Kernos or kernoi (in plural) are ritual vessels, images are from the archeological site in Eleusis. The kernos is a terracotta vessel with many little bowls surrounding it. A concoction of herbs, wheat, olive oil, and other ingredients was inside it to taste. A lamp probably topped the vessel. The priestesses carried these ritual vessels atop their heads during the procession at the Eleusinian Mysteries as we can see in a plaque above.
Some scholars believe that a drink called kykeon, which was consumed by the initiates, contained psychoactive ingredients, which may have been made from barley or rye that was infected with ergot, a fungus that produces lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). It was a carefully balanced brew of alcohol, herbs, spices, and ergot. Other possible ingredients include wild mushrooms or opium poppies. Only women prepared the drink, which gave the users transcendent experiences.
Kykeon: A drink consumed by initiates, thought to contain psychoactive ingredients. Ergot: A fungus that grows on grains, containing LSD-like alkaloids. Fragments of ergot have been found in a temple dedicated to the Eleusinian goddesses, providing evidence for its potential use. Psilocybin Mushrooms: Some scholars speculate that these mushrooms were used due to their hallucinogenic properties.
The descriptions of the Mysteries by ancient authors suggest that the initiates experienced visions and altered states of consciousness during the Eleusinian Mysteries. However, plant medicine was not limited to the Eleusinian Mysteries. Ancient Greeks used a variety of substances for medicinal, religious, and recreational purposes. While some drank a holy beer, others consumed the holy wine of Dionysus to become one with the god in ancient Greece. These substances included opium poppy, cannabis, and wine.
In the book The Road to Eleusis, the authors describe the original meaning of wine and the god Dyonasis and how different formulas for the dilution of wine with water had varied effects on people. The word “drunkenness” in Greek meant a state of complete Madness, and the authors think that the drinks contained psychotropic compounds mixed with water, herbs, and spices.
What is ergot?
Ergot is a fungal growth that primarily affects rye and other cereal grasses. Ergot appears as a dark, elongated, hard structure called a sclerotium that replaces the grain (kernel) of rye, wheat, barley, and other grasses. These sclerotia are:
Dark purple to black in color
Hard and dense
Elongated and curved, often described as “horn-like”
Typically about 1-2 centimeters long
Somewhat similar in shape to a narrow, blackened grain of the host plant
In the field, an infected grain head will look abnormal, with these dark, hardened ergot bodies replacing some or many of the normal grains. During harvest, these ergot bodies can be mixed in with the grain, making them a potential health hazard if not carefully removed.
The fungus (Claviceps purpurea) is particularly notorious because the ergot sclerotia contains powerful alkaloids that can be extremely toxic to humans and animals if consumed. Historically, ergot poisoning (called ergotism) caused serious health problems and even contributed to social upheavals in medieval Europe when contaminated rye bread caused widespread illness. Farmers and agricultural experts carefully monitor crops for signs of ergot, as its presence can render an entire grain harvest unusable and potentially dangerous.
A Window into the History of Mystery Religion, Mysticism and Ancient Spirituality in Ancient Greece: The Greek Magical Papyri
The Greek Magical Papyri is a collection of ancient spells and rituals that were probably combined with natural plants written down in the papyri to create ‘magic’ and let people enter the hidden world of altered reality. This was a literal “magician book”. Some herbs like wormwood (contained in the 19th-century French absinthe) and nightshade were probably mixed into incense or ink to inhale and make a potent spell using the book. It makes me think of fairy tales with Baba Yaga and powerful magicians stirring green liquids in their pots and cauldrons.
Discovered in Egypt, The Greek Magical Papyri are a collection of ancient texts, primarily written in Greek, that contain a variety of magical spells, incantations, and rituals. These papyri, dating from the 100s BCE to the 400s CE, offer a glimpse into the mystical and religious beliefs of the Greco-Roman world. The papyri include spells for love, wealth, health, protection, and harm. They also contain hymns for various deities, incantations for summoning spirits, and astral magic and theurgy rituals. The texts reflect a syncretistic blend of Greek, Egyptian, and other religious traditions. They incorporate elements from Greek mythology, Egyptian deities, and other magical systems. Many spells and rituals are intended for practical purposes, such as healing the sick, driving away evil spirits, or gaining wealth. Some texts describe theurgical practices, involving direct communication with divine beings through mystical experiences and rituals. Astrology plays a significant role in many magical practices, with the alignment of celestial bodies considered crucial for successful spells and rituals.
The Greek Magical Papyri list a wide variety of plants used in their spells and rituals. Here are some of the plants that are commonly mentioned:
Peony: Often used in love spells and potions. Lily: Associated with beauty, love, and fertility. Laurel: Symbolizing victory, purification, and prophetic power. Olive: Connected to peace, wisdom, and healing. Poppy: Associated with sleep, death, and dreams. Rue: Used for protection, purification, and healing. Thyme: Associated with courage, strength, and purification. Mint: Used for purification, healing, and love magic. Garlic: A powerful protective herb, often used to ward off evil spirits. Onion: Associated with fertility, protection, and healing. Fig: Symbolizing abundance, prosperity, and fertility. Pomegranate: Connected to fertility, rebirth, and the underworld.
Toxic and sometimes fatal, Mandrake was used as an anesthetic, and pain reliever that treated insomnia and other ailments. Due to its human-like root shape, the mandrake was often associated with fertility, love, and protection. It was used in love potions, fertility charms, and protective amulets.
Wormwood, or Artemisia absinthium was used to enhance the spells. Due to its bitter taste and strong aroma, wormwood was often associated with protection and purification. It was used in spells and rituals to ward off evil spirits, induce visions, and enhance psychic abilities. It was burned as incense to purify spaces and connect with the divine.
Toxic Henbane was used to relieve pain, induce sleep, and calm anxiety. It was also employed in the treatment of mental disorders. Henbane was considered a powerful hallucinogenic and was used in divination and spiritual practices. It was also used in potions and spells for love, protection, and harm.
Nightshade plants, particularly Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade) were deadly if misused. Yet, The plant’s alkaloids were applied to alleviate pain, particularly during childbirth and surgery. It could also induce sleep and calm anxiety. The plant’s psychoactive properties were exploited in various rituals and spiritual practices. The plant’s potent alkaloids can cause a range of symptoms, including hallucinations, delirium, and even death.
Ancient Greeks used opium to alleviate suffering from various ailments, like a lack of sleep, to calm anxiety, and to treat diarrhea. Opium was likely used in religious ceremonies, particularly those associated with the Eleusinian Mysteries, where it may have been ingested to induce altered states of consciousness, to facilitate prophetic dreams and visions.
The Greek Magical Papyri & its spells
It’s filled with a variety of spells, each designed for a specific purpose. Some examples include:
Love Spells:
Love Charm for Immediate Effect: This spell involves writing holy names with the blood of a black donkey on a seashell and reciting a formula to attract a specific person.
Eternal Love Spell: This spell, invoking the god Iabo, uses magical words and symbols to secure the eternal love of a woman.
Protection Spells:
Protection Against Enemies: This spell involves writing a specific formula on a piece of papyrus and wearing it as an amulet.
Protection from Evil Spirits: This spell involves burning incense and reciting specific incantations to ward off evil spirits.
Divination Spells:
Dream Incubation: This spell involves specific rituals and prayers to induce prophetic dreams.
Scrying: This spell involves gazing into a reflective surface, such as water or a mirror, to receive visions and messages from the divine.
Healing Spells:
Healing Wounds: This spell involves applying a specific ointment to the wound and reciting a healing incantation.
Curing Illness: This spell involves specific rituals and the use of herbs and amulets to cure various illnesses.
The benefits of psychedelics
Today, psychedelics have a negative connotation because they fall under the general umbrella of ‘drug use’ and are considered to be hallucinogens. However, different ancient cultures have used various plant medicines for centuries to heal the soul, elevate fears of death, and provide a transformative experience that lasts a lifetime. While plant medicine is not for schizophrenic minds, it’s far from being a mere hallucination. Rather, it’s a powerful, non-addictive substance that can cure your soul by traveling deep inside yourself into a parallel reality where you learn who you truly are.
The Architecture of the Eleusinian Mysteries: A Study of Sacred Space and Ritual
Most of the following descriptions come from the grounds & museum at the archeological site of Eleusis. I fixed the text for better English.
The Telesterion of Eleusis: Exploring the Architectural Features of a Sacred Initiation Site
The most significant structure within the Sanctuary was the Telesterion, a large, underground hall where the initiates would gather for the final and most sacred part of the ritual. The Telesterion or the “Hall of Initiation” was designed to accommodate thousands of people, with its Doric columns, mosaic floors, and a central aisle leading to the Anaktoron, the holy chamber for sacred objects’ safekeeping. This large, underground hall gathered people to perform the most sacred rites.
The oldest excavated remains date to the Mycenaean period (1600-1100 BC) and belong to a rectangular megaroid building known as the “Megaron B.” It had two columns along the central axis and a portico with stairs on its façade. What we see today are the leftovers from the construction in the 5th century BC.
Plan of Eleusis with the Telesterion in the center. By Zde – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=55707754
In the early 6th century BC, the Solonian Telesterion with a rectangular main temple appeared in the same location. Because of the continuous growth of the reputation and worshippers at the Sanctuary in the late 6th -century BC, a new building emerged at the same location. The location was always sacred to worshippers because it had been indicated by the goddess Demeter in the ancient myth. This large and richly decorated building had the name of the Telesterion of Peisistratus. It retained its features in later Greco-Roman construction periods. The architectural remains visible today relate to the Telesterion of the classical period (5th century BC), the Portico of Philo (4th century BC), and the Roman modifications (2nd century AD).
Designed by the Eleusinian architect Philo, the Portico of Philo was attached to the east façade. Built on a strong foundation, its floor was paved with Eleusinian limestone. Created in the doric order style, the building consisted of twelve columns on the façade and two on the narrow sides, of which only parts of the lower drums are preserved. In 170 AD, the Costoboci invaders burnt down the Telesterion. During the years of emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD), classical-style Telesterion was reconstructed with some extension. During the Roman period, two stairs were cut in the rock that led to an elongated square of the Upper Court, 70m long and 11,45m wide.
Visible architectural remains mainly relate to the Telesterion of the classical period (5th century BC), which the architect of the Parthenon, Ictinos planned. Due to construction difficulties and Pericles’ death, his plan was not executed to a great extent and the construction study was assigned to three architects, Coroibos, Metagenes, and Xenocles.
The classical Telesterion looked like a square hall with Doric columns. Its sides measured about 51,50m. A colonnaded porch on the East side had 12 doric columns and 8 rows of rock steps. Artificially constructed stone blocks were arranged along four sides of the hall to seat the initiates who attended the sacred enactments. 42 columns supported the building’s roof. Lighter columns were superimposed over them to reach the ceiling. The center of the roof had a raised lightwell to illuminate the interior space of the building.
View of the Sanctuary of Demeter with the Telesterion’s shape from Google EarthView of the Telesterion from the museum’s site
The Anactoron (The House of God), a small, rectangular space dedicated to the safekeeping of sacred cult objects was located in the hall’s center. Only the highest priest, the so-called Hierophant could enter this space to reveal the holy objects to the initiates during the night of the Eleusian Mysteries. The Hierophant’s throne was situated outside the entrance to the Anactoron. The worshippers also gathered in the Sacred Court that extended along the Telesterion’s three sides. It had altars and numerous dedications to participate in the sacred rites.
The initiates observed the law of silence throughout antiquity, which forbade them from revealing what happened in the Telesterion. Testimonies of the secretive performances are vague but reveal reenactments, drama, and mystical indoctrination. The main initiation occurred in the Telesterion on the 6 & 7th days of the mysterious nights. Only those initiated the previous year could become supervisors (epoptes). The 8th day was dedicated to libations with liquid offerings in ritual vessels for the underworld gods and the dead. The return was on the 9th day. The initiates would return home, scattered into smaller groups.
Funerary Proto-Attic Amphora with a depiction of the blinding of the cyclops Polyphemus by Odysseus and his companions, 670-660 BCE Eleusis, Veronica Winters art blog
The Roman Court of Eleusis
The spacious, square court stood in front of the main entrance of the Eleusian sanctuary. Paved with large marble rectangular slabs, it was 65m long by 40m wide. The Sacred Way ended at the court area. The preserved foundations of a semicircular building formed the Exedra from where the dignitaries of the Sanctuary attended the arrival of the worshippers. The Roman court was bordered by a portico, a fountain, and a triumphal arch on its East side. The second triumphal arch stood on the West side. An L-shaped portico bordered the rest of the west side of the court. High-quality materials and construction of the Roman court indicate general oversight of the Roman Emperor Hadrian (117-138 AD). The construction program continued under Antoninus Pius (138-161 AD) and was completed under Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD).
The wall of Lycurgus is a wall associated with the Athenian logographer Lycurgus, who is said to have worked to improve the security and splendor of Athens. However, the construction of the Eleusis enclosurewall predates Lycurgus’s time and was built in the 4th century BC. Located farther away from the temple of Demeter, this new, 2.55-meter thick, defense wall was built with the so-called isodomic building masonry system imitating the earlier Periclean wall. It consisted of two-colored stones greyish-blue Eleusinian limestone and yellow-red blocks. It had two towers, a round one and a square tower, protecting the main entrance to the sanctuary from the sea.
The Little Propylaea of Eleusis
Propylaea is the name given to monumental gates or entranceways to a temple or religious complex. It acts as a symbolic partition between the secular and spiritual parts of a city.
19th-century drawing of propylaea in Athens. Image in public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=156815
The main entrance to the Sanctuary of Eleusis consisted of a monumental gateway that was rebuilt over the earlier version of the North Gate. When the Greater Propylaea was constructed as the main entrance, the Gateway became the Lesser Propylaea or the inner entrance to the Sanctuary. According to a Latin inscription on its architrave, a Roman consul Appius Claudius Pulcher dedicated it to the goddesses Demeter and Persephone in 54 BC.
The edifice consisted of two colonnades of porticoes. They were separated by a transverse wall with a double door that opened into the inner portico. Two other preserved, parallel furrows probably enabled rainwater drainage. The outer portico had an interesting layout. The pediment, door pilasters, and two columns formed the gate. The Corinthian columns and pilasters had elaborate decorations of winged animals- lions, and bulls. The cult symbols of Demeter, like wheat rosettes and flowers decorated spaces between the columns and the pediment.
The inner portico had a flat coffered ceiling, supported by two monumental, pentelic Caryatids. One is on display in the Archaeological Museum of Eleusis. At the same time, the other one was stolen by the English traveler Edward Clark and transported to Cambridge in 1812, where it still stands today. Both statues depict Maidens who carry the mystic cist on their heads. It’s the cylindrical container with the sacred, cult objects they had in a ritual. They were also decorated with carved reliefs -symbols of the cult of Demeter. More on it below.
The Architecture of the Eleusinian Mysteries: the Caryatid
Caryatid’s face, Eleusis
Who is Caryatid?
Caryatid is a sculpted female figure used as an architectural support, taking the place of a column or pillar to hold up an entablature. The term “caryatid” comes from the Greek word “Karyatis,” which refers to the women of the ancient town of Caryae. The most famous example of caryatids can be found on the south porch of the Erechtheion on the Acropolis in Athens, created during the Classical Greek period around 421-417 BCE.
Caryatids found on the south porch of the Erechtheion on the Acropolis in Athens
The Mythology of Caryatid
The mythology behind these figures is somewhat disputed. One interpretation is that they represent the women of Caryae, a town that sided with the Persians during the Persian Wars. As punishment, the women were forced into slavery and forced to carry heavy burdens. The caryatids, then, would symbolize this punishment, bearing the weight of the building’s entablature.
However, another interpretation suggests that the caryatids represent priestesses of Artemis Caryatis, the goddess associated with the walnut tree. This interpretation is supported by the presence of a sanctuary of Artemis Caryatis in the town of Caryae.
In Roman times, the two colossal Caryatids adorned the Little Propylaia decoration. The Caryatid was about three times the size of a man. She carried a cylindrical box on her head, a “cyst,” decorated with ears of corn, rosettes, and ritual vessels named “kerns.” For the villagers of Elefsina, she was the “saint Demeter who protected their land and gave them a good harvest.”
Views of one Caryatid left in Eleusis
The theft of the Caryatid of Eleusis
Eleusis continued its existence after a formal, forced closure of its grounds by the Byzantine emperors. A Frankish tower that existed until 1953 illustrates the passage of Franks through Eleusis. The Venetians also went through Eleusis as they wanted to take a large statue of Koris but left it in place there. This statue appears in the plans of the British George Wheler, who visited the Sanctuary of Demeter in 1676 to describe the desolated space. In 1801, another British traveler, ED Clarke comes to Eleusis and decides to take the statue of the Maiden with him. ED Clarke loaded one of them on his ship that sank off the coast of England. The statue was recovered and placed in the Public Library in the Fitzwilliam Museum of Cambridge in 1803.
Sphinxes Decorations on Tombs in Eleusis | Veronica Winters Art Blog
How Colorful Clothes Exhibited Fashion, Status, & Symbolism in Ancient Greece
Because of the secrecy of the ceremony, it’s difficult to say what the ancient Greeks wore exactly during the rites. However, it’s reasonable to think that clothing also had some spiritual significance in the Eleusinian Mysteries, as the initiates probably wore ceremonial, colored robes with patterns, jewelry, and wreaths, as we see in this terracotta plaque found in Eleusis. The garments look a lot more decorative and refined than Greek usual outerwear. Leaf tiaras and crowns top the heads of both men and women.
Other statues exhibited in the museum:
The Eleusinian sculptures in the Archeological Museum show classical Greek costumes -himation (off-one shoulder and draped around cloak) and chiton (toga-like dress).
Statue of Antinoos, (on the left) 2nd C. AD. Antinoos was a beautiful youth and probably a lover of the emperor Hadrian (117-138 AD). He drowned in the Nile barely reaching adulthood, and Hadrian deified him, flooding the empire with statues, portraits, and even temples dedicated to the handsome youth.
Statue of Asclepius, (center) 320 BC. The Healer God or the god of health and medicine. It was found north of the Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore, where there was presumably a shrine of the god.
Clothing as a symbol of status in ancient Greece:
Attributed to the Nikon Painter, Terracotta lekythos (oil flask), ca. 460? -450 B.C., Terracotta, H. 15 in. (38.1 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Leon Pomerance, 1953 (53.224)
In general, though, ancient Greeks wore four layers or types of clothing depending on their sex and event. The Peplos, Chiton, Himation, and the Chlamys. They didn’t wear trousers or underwear. You can see a well-written summary with illustrations and vases here, at the Art Institute of Chicago, and here, at the Met.
The Charioteer, closeup of a bronze sculpture of a young man, Classical period, 478 BC, 1,82m in height, Delphi.
I think ancient Greek clothing was beautiful, elegant, and functional, considering they probably exercised in short chitons at the gymnasium. Sculptures of men dressed in the chitons remind me of the Doric columns from the temples of ancient Greece. Dress code and fabric colors reflected social and economic status, and this book reconstructs the social meanings attached to the dressed body in ancient Greece: Body, Dress, and Identity in Ancient Greece, by Mireille M. Lee.
Here are some of the most common garments in ancient Greece:
Statue of a goddess, probably Aphrodite, 4th century BCE, Athens. She is dressed in peplos and himation.
For Women:
Peplos: A rectangular piece of cloth, one-size-fits-all, draped over the body, fastened with brooches at the shoulders. It was often worn by married women and was associated with modesty and respectability. The fabric was wool. It was replaced by the chiton later on.
Chiton: A garment similar to a tunic, often worn underneath the peplos. It could be sleeveless or have short sleeves, belted. The fabric was fine linen but it was often made of silk for women. At first, only men wore it long but eventually, this style became popular among women, while men shortened their chitons. By the 4th century BC, the ‘luxury’ chitons became elaborate with patterns and decorations.
Himation: A large rectangular cloak that could be draped around the body and off-one shoulder worn over the chiton. Made of wool, it was often used for warmth or as a symbol of status.
Daochos monument with Agias, Delphi illustrates ancient Greek styles of clothing
For Men:
Chiton: Similar to the women’s chiton, but often shorter and more fitted. It could be worn alone or under a himation.
Himation: A large rectangular cloak, made of wool, similar to the one worn by women. It could be draped diagonally off a shoulder and wrapped around the body. Men wore it over the chiton or nude body.
Chlamys: A shorter, more rectangular cloak reserved for men only. It was often worn by young men, especially soldiers because it helped them in battles. It was typically fastened with a brooch at the shoulder. In late antiquity, the chlamys changed their length, material, and status. Made of silk and precious stones decorations, chlamys belonged to the dress code of emperors and high-ranking officials.
Attic cup: Oedipus and the Sphinx
Oedipus and the Sphinx, interior of an Attic red-figured kylix (cup or drinking vessel), c. 470 BCE; in the Gregorian Etruscan Museum, the Vatican Museums, Rome.
Fabric dyes & symbolism of color:
As you can see ancient Greeks used several types of fabric, mainly linen, wool, and silk. When we look at the images on the vases and sculptures, we think of white fabric that can represent purity. However, ancient Greeks often dyed their fabric in vibrant hues like purple, red, blue, and yellow that were costly and represented status.
Common dyes were:
Madder Root: This plant produces a vibrant red dye, often associated with passion, vitality, and courage.
Woad: This plant yielded a blue dye, symbolizing wisdom, spirituality, and the divine.
Saffron: A luxurious and expensive yellow dye, often associated with royalty, wealth, and happiness.
Kermes: This insect produced a deep red dye, similar to madder, and was also linked to passion and vitality.
Tyrian Purple: A rare and costly purple-red dye extracted from a type of sea snail, this color was reserved for the elite and symbolized wealth, power, and imperial authority.
Symbolism of Color in Ancient Greece:
White: Often associated with purity, innocence, and mourning.
Black: Symbolized death, mourning, and the underworld.
Red: Connected to passion, vitality, and courage.
Blue: Associated with wisdom, spirituality, and the divine.
Purple: Symbolized royalty, wealth, and power.
Yellow: Linked to happiness, joy, and the sun.
In conclusion:
The Eleusian Mysteries was the most significant pagan ritual of Ancient Greece. Every year, thousands of individuals participated in these secret ceremonies, in honor of Demeter and Persephone, the Greek goddesses of fertility and agriculture. We may never know the exact rituals that involved initiation, processions, and purification ceremonies to honor the cycles of life and death and to experience unity with God. We may never learn the exact formula for a magic drink of ancient Greeks. One thing is clear, what looks like a bunch of broken stones today was an important center of shamanic worship for ancient Greeks to learn about themselves by connecting to a higher power in a once-in-a-lifetime event. By feeling unity with the divine through a shared psychedelic drink, ancient Greeks had a pathway to see beyond reality, be the one with the community, and live a meaningful life.
Please share your thoughts on the mysteries of Demeter and check out my other videos on ancient Greece. nika@veronicasart.com
Before the birth of Jesus, the Ancient Greeks found salvation in their own sacraments. Sacred beverages were routinely consumed as part of the so-called Ancient Mysteries – elaborate rites that led initiates to the brink of death. The best and brightest from Athens and Rome flocked to the spiritual capital of Eleusis, where a holy beer unleashed heavenly visions for two thousand years. Others drank the holy wine of Dionysus to become one with the god. In the 1970s, renegade scholars claimed this beer and wine – the original sacraments of Western civilization – were spiked with mind-altering drugs. In recent years, vindication for the disgraced theory has been quietly mounting in the laboratory. The constantly advancing fields of archaeobotany and archaeochemistry have hinted at the enduring use of hallucinogenic drinks in antiquity. And with a single dose of psilocybin, the psychopharmacologists at Johns Hopkins and NYU are now turning self-proclaimed atheists into instant believers. But the smoking gun remains elusive. If these sacraments survived for thousands of years in our remote prehistory, from the Stone Age to the Ancient Greeks, did they also survive into the age of Jesus? Was the Eucharist of the earliest Christians, in fact, a psychedelic Eucharist? The Immortality Key reconstructs the suppressed history of women consecrating a forbidden, drugged Eucharist that was later banned by the Church Fathers. Women were then targeted as witches during the Inquisition when Europe’s sacred pharmacology largely disappeared.
the road to Eleusis unveiling the secret of the mysteries:
the Eleusinian Mysteries were a series of secret rituals and initiations in honor of the goddesses Demeter and Persephone for almost 2000 years. The book’s first release in 1978 showed the work of three researchers—a mycologist, chemist, and historian—who revealed the sacred potion use during the rites. Infused with a psychoactive entheogen, the drink reframed modern understanding of the rites and religion in general. The authors share insights on experiential religious practices, perspectives on the healing potential of psychedelics, and how—and why—the secrets of the Mysteries were deliberately concealed. This 30th-anniversary edition has a renewed exploration of the chemical findings by Peter Webster turning our knowledge of the past and religious history upside down.
Delve into the enigmatic world of the Eleusinian Mysteries! This video explores the ancient Greek rituals, their connection to the cult of Demeter and Persephone, and the potential role of psychedelic substances like the “kykeon” in inducing altered states of consciousness. We’ll examine the archaeological evidence, historical accounts, and philosophical interpretations of these sacred rites, uncovering the mysteries surrounding death, rebirth, and the pursuit of esoteric knowledge in ancient Greece Although the use of psychedelics is a forbidden topic in our society, ancient cultures have used them for centuries. Join me as I dive deep into the secrets of Demeter’s ancient cult, sacred space and architecture in Eleusis!
Should I visit Knossos? That’s the question I asked myself planning my trip to Greece. The Palace of Minos in Knossos is located on the outskirts of town Heraklion on the island of Crete. Here, you’ll find some historic information about the palace of Minos and its culture. While Knossos is the center of the Minoan culture that gives us valuable insight into the habits of ancient civilization, I must say that this place might not be very interesting to see for a seasoned traveler. Parts of the palace have been reconstructed to give you a better idea what it looked like, and the museum has many artifacts that were found by the archeologist Sir Evans at the ancient site.
I think the most amazing thing about Knossos is its unusual architectural design and application. Unlike other palaces in the history of humanity where royalty separated itself to live and govern in modern luxury, the Palace of Minos held many administrative, religious, entertaining and ceremonial functions inside it. The Palace appeared to have been the center of political, economic and religious authority. It also housed various people and trades in it, including artisans and merchants. The labyrinth-like structure of the palace birthed one of Greek myths about Theseus, prince of Athens who slayed the Minotaur. The Minotaur was a half-bull, half-man who lived imprisoned in a labyrinth build by King Minos, father of Ariadne. Ariadne fell in love with Theseus. It's believed that Daedalus was the architect of the labyrinth and the palace. He advised Ariadne to give a tread to Theseus to find his way back from the labyrinth. King Aegeus was Theseus’s father (hence, the Aegean sea name) who threw himself off of the cliff by a mistake. He thought that Theseus was dead because of a black sail that wasn't replaced to the white one and thus killed the king.
To get to the Palace of Minos, we used a public bus and bought a ticket in a local market shop. Greeks speak English well and can help you navigate the purchase of tickets and other things. People working at the hotels also speak English well and could be a resource for you to navigate around the island. The majority of the following information comes from the wall descriptions in the museum and archeological center of the palace of Knossos.
Video on YouTube:
Brief history of the Minoan culture on Crete, Heraklion
The archeologist, Sir Arthur Evans, did the majority of excavations in Knossos in the early 20th century. He named this ancient culture “Minoan” in accordance with ancient Greek myths that referenced King Minos ruling in the area.
Prehistoric Crete (7000 – 1100 BC): the Minoan World
Crete has always been both a bridge and a melting pot of cultural expression, innovation and knowledge. Situated at the crossroads of the sea routes linking three continents, Asia, Africa and Europe, the Minoan world was preceded by a lengthy development, starting from the birth of Neolithic communities around 7000 BC, to the establishment of complex social structures during the course of the 3rd millennium BC.
During the Bronze Age, Cretan culture had experienced constant enrichment and renewal through interactive communication with other Aegean civilizations, Egypt and the East. This interaction created favorable conditions for the emergence of the first great urban-palatial civilization in Europe. The Minoan civilization got its name after Minos, the semi-divine king of Knossos. The ruling elites and classes rose to wealth and power through control of production and trade.
By 2000 BCE, complex urban centers like Knossos and Phaistos emerged, boasting multi-story palaces. These were large cities with a palace center. The palace became the center of authority and residence of the Court officials, and it functioned as the seat of a complex administrative bureaucracy, including gathering and processing of goods. Social structures and relationships got consolidated through secular and religious palace rituals. Minoans thrived on maritime trade throughout the Aegean and beyond, establishing themselves as a powerful trading force. Their vibrant art, depicting nature, rituals, and bull-leaping ceremonies, adorns palace walls in vivid frescoes.
Art of the Minoan Civilization:
The Knossos Bull, 1600-1450 BC. This is the bull’s head made of stone. A masterpiece of the Minoan art, it features an inlay of white seashell, rock crystal and red jasper. Carved with great precision, the bull is a vessel used for libations at the palace.
All forms of art developed and reached its peak on the island: large wall paintings, miniatures, seal-carving, jewelry-making, goldsmithing, metalwork, stone-carving and vase-painting. Increased demand for luxury and status items, which were also exported off Crete, led to the development of massive import of raw materials, such as gold, ivory, silver, copper and semiprecious stones. Minoan seafarers dominated the Aegean Sea and the East Mediterranean trading raw materials and precious art. Colonies, ports and stations of Minoan character throughout the Aegean became bases for trade overseas, while Minoan painters decorated palaces in Egypt and the East. Echoes of Cretan sea power were preserved in ancient myths of the Minoan thalassocracy.
The Minoan Ring of Minos, Knossos, 1450-1400 BC. The Ring of Minos is a masterpiece of Minoan jewelry-making that gives a good overview of the religious iconography of the Minoans. The image summarizes 3 levels of epiphany. The goddess is depicted in a miniature form floating in the air. She is also seated on a platform topped with horns of consecration. She also rows in a boat decorated with a prow depicting a seahorse. Both male and a female tree cult surround the goddess.
The goddess passes through 3 natural elements, air, land and sea, which becomes a symbolic unification of the mortal world. The ring’s story depicts Minoan rule and power over land and sea.
Decline of the Minoan civilizationaround 1450 BC:
Natural disasters that shocked the Minoan World, such as the earthquake and the cataclysmic eruption of the Thera volcano, did not cause its decline. The Minoan civilization collapsed circa 1450 BC, probably due to some internal causes. Main Minoan centers and palaces got destroyed with the exception of Knossos. As the Minoan influence waned, the mainland Mycenaean Greeks gained prominence. Mycenaean culture absorbed some Minoan elements, forming a hybrid civilization that lasted until around 1100 BCE. New dynasties got established first at Knossos (1450-1300 BC) and then in Kydonia at Chania (1300-1250 BC). They controlled a complex bureaucracy using Mycenaean script, the first form of Greek writing. The gradual arrival of tribes from central Greece, especially from the 13th century BC onwards, led to the permanent incorporation of Crete in the cultural and political structures of the Greek world at the turn of the 2nd to the 1 millennium BC. Much about Minoan society remains a mystery, including their language (Linear A remains undeciphered). Their social structure, religious beliefs, and the reasons for their decline continue to spark debate and research.
Minoan Achievements:
Innovative engineering with advanced water management systems and multi-story buildings.
Developed writing systems, including Linear A and Linear B, used for administrative purposes.
Skilled artisans crafted exquisite pottery, jewelry, and other objects. Rise of large, decorative sculpture for palaces and buildings.
Discovered and produced expensive purple dye to color the clothes and fabric for the wealthy.
Minoan Bee pendant, 1800-1700 BC, Malia, Crete. This is a work of art because it combines repousse, granulated filigree design and incised decoration.
The emergence of palatial societies & palaces on Crete
Elaborate building complexes, known as the “First” or “Old” Palaces, were established at the center of large towns, which emerged in the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. Parts of these early complexes, buried under new palaces built atop, have been identified and partially excavated at Knossos, Phaistos, Malia and Petras. They include dining areas, large assembly and ceremonial halls, storerooms and a central court.
Gold-sheathed luxury weapons, scepters of authority, and precious jewelry also functioned symbolically, stressing the social status power and prestige of the palatial elite.
Writing was adopted to record goods, and complex sealing methods were developed, to ensure conformity of commercial transactions with the guarantee of the palatial administration.
Society was structured hierarchically with different skills and activities. Figures weaving on looms, potters and hunters are depicted on seals, while images of sailing ships reveal the presence of mariners. Some ancient figurines, ornate offering vessels and the remains of animal sacrifices show that the cult culture existed in palatial and domestic contexts. The “Old” Palaces were destroyed by fire circa 1700 BC.
Vases and decorations of the palace & houses of Knossos
The vessels of the Knossian workshop, 1500 BC, Crete
In the times of greatest prosperity, Minoan ceramic art reached its peak. The found objects of exceptional quality were produced in specialized workshops for the use of the ruling and prosperous urban class in the palace and town of Knossos. Stone lamps and vessels with elaborate relief decoration, bronze vessels, and vases with raised pictorial compositions or inlaid and covered in fine gold leaf, served practical and ceremonial purpose. The dark-on-light decoration dominated local pottery.
This is the pottery of the so-called “Special Palatial Tradition“, produced by palatial Workshops, mainly at Knossos. These elegant vases are decorated with geometrical and stylized motifs, and with nature and sea-inspired subjects named the “Floral Style” and the “Marine Style”. Exquisite vases were created by gifted artists such as “Reed Painter”, “Olive Spray Painter”, “Marine Style Master” and “Octopus inter”, whose works have also been found beyond Knossos on Crete.
Wine & Symposia at the Palace of Phaistos
Polychrome Kamares Ware vessels were used in palace banquets that attest to the opulent lifestyle of the palatial ruling class through their quality, quantity and astounding decorative variety.
Beautiful vessels found in the Phaistos palace are excellent examples of the so-called Kamares ware, a colorful decorative style that’s common for the palatial ceramic production during the First Palaces period. Decorations on these vases show similarities in painted motifs, like the chequerboard, spirals, and rocks. The vases were probably the products of one workshop that could have been made as a custom ‘dinner set’ for banquets and ceremonies of the ruling class at the Phaistos palace.
The wine vessels of the Phaistos palace, Minoan, Crete, 1800-1700 BC.
Among the vessels we can see a large crater standing on a high foot that could have been the vessel for mixing and drinking wine in large quantities. The offering of wine to a deity and group consumption of wine at banquets seems to be central to secular and religious rituals in the communities of prehistoric Crete. We can imagine the euphoria that prevailed at such banquets. This feeling could have been exacerbated by the visual stimulus of the decorations on these vessels. Painted spirals had a vivid, swirling movement with color intensity of polychromies used on vessels of the Kamares ware.
In this particular case, the luxurious ‘dinner set’ of the Phaistos palace rivals the vessels used in Knossos for similar symposium ceremonies at that time period. We might discern a demonstration of power of the palace’s ruling class through these luxurious vessels. It could have been an attempt at cohesion of local communities through these opulent banquets. This was an era of competition between palaces that would lead to the emergence of Knossos as the first power on the island during the next period of New Palaces.
The Minoans of Crete were pioneers in the production of the famous purple dye known today as Tyrian purple.
The Minoans obtained the dye from murex sea snails, similar to the Phoenicians who later became famous for it. Archaeological evidence suggests Minoan production dates back to the Middle Minoan period (2000-1600 BCE), predating the Phoenicians by centuries. Discoveries of large quantities of crushed murex shells at sites like Chryssi Island in eastern Crete point to dedicated dye production facilities. The Minoan purple dye likely possessed the same rich, deep color and remarkable lightfastness (resistance to fading) that made Tyrian purple so valuable. The extraction process was laborious, involving the collection and processing of vast numbers of sea snails. The resulting dye was incredibly expensive due to the difficulty of production. Minoan purple likely colored textiles and other luxury items, signifying wealth and status. It’s interesting to note that while the Phoenicians later became synonymous with this purple dye, the Minoans may have been the true innovators behind this remarkable ancient technology.
The Palace of Minos in Knossos
The following information comes from the descriptions found inside the museum. I reworked it for better reading experience.
The Palace of Knossos is the largest palace on the island of Crete. The palace is surrounded by an extensive city. The Palace was built on the low Kephala hill at the confluence of two streams. This location determined the subsequent growth of the settlement because of its proximity to the sea and rich soil of the region. The extensive settlement appeared during the Neolithic period (6700-3200 В.С.).
The First Palace was built around 1900 B.C. (Old Palace Period). It appears that the basic floor plan appeared at that time based on few, preserved parts today. This first palace got destroyed around 1700 B.C. and the New Palace was built in its place (New Palace Period). With the exception of some later additions, Arthur Evans uncovered and restored its ruins.
The New Palace consisted of different buildings surrounding the Central Court. There were multiple entrances, including the formal southwest and north ones. The West Wing includes shrines, official halls and extensive storage areas, and the East Wing, the “Royal Apartments” and workshops. There were storage rooms and other areas to the north and south.
Architecture:
The Palace displays a great variety of architectural features. Multi-storied buildings had flat roofs on different levels. They had the indented or protruding facades. The embellishments included stone horns and multi-colored surfaces. The Minoans used a variety of materials, like green schist’ slabs on the floor, wooden columns, and gypsum slabs on walls and construction elsewhere. Polychrome plaster and wall paintings contributed to room decorations.
Minoan architects broke new ground in both planning and construction techniques of their buildings. They developed the palaces and buildings with palatial features and the Palace in Knossos became the epitome of Minoan architecture.
An emblematic Minoan innovation is the “polythyron hall” with pier-and-door partitions and light wells offering various combinations of circulation, lighting and ventilation. Another pioneering invention is the addition of wooden columns to the façades, forming colonnades and balconies looking onto the great courts. The crowning achievement of the design is the ‘Grand Staircase of Knossos,’ with its 2 flights of stairs supported by columns on each floor. A dense grid of timber frames ensured the construction stability.
The Minoans used raised stone and painted plaster elements of doorways and floors, in particular gypsum (alabaster) on the floors and ashlar masonry on the façades. Its architectural complexity, maze-like interior, shifts of light and shade, gave rise to the myth of the Minoan Labyrinth. Besides the palace itself, elements of palatial and urban architecture are depicted in wall paintings, clay models and the plaques of the “Town Mosaic.”
The Palace appears to have been the center of political, economic and religious authority. Main archeologist, Sir Arthur Evans, attempted to interpret the function of the spaces in the Palace and gave them names that reflected their use according to his opinion. This was based on the finds, mythology, and analogies with ancient civilizations during his time. These names are still the same, like the “Queen’s Megaron” [hall], “Piano Nobile” [upper floor], “Throne Room”, etc. Although a continued research has put forward different views on the function of some areas.
The Palace of Knossos continued its use after the 1450 B.C. even when the rest of the Cretan palaces were already destroyed. Most experts believe that new inhabitants came from the Mycenaean Greek mainland and settled in the Palace, thanks to the discovery of the Mycenean archive of Linear B script. It remains unclear when the Palace ceased to function. The significance of its former glory got lost after the 1380 B.C.
The North Lustral Basin
This room resembles a cistern. Reached by steps, its floor is lower than the surrounding area. Many columns surrounded the “Lustral Basin” and were lined with slabs of gypsum, giving it luxurious appearance. The area in its present form has been reconstructed by Evans.
Other parts of the Palace of Knossos have similar rooms. Moreover, other palaces and Minoan buildings of this period (1700-1450 B.C.) have the same structure. The use of such cistern-like areas is unknown. However, based on their construction, the rooms were not filled with water and had no drainage system. Evans thought that they were used in purification ceremonies and thus called the “Lustral Basins”. Evans also believed that the Palace was a sacred place. In his opinion, the “Lustral Basin” in question was used to purify visitors going into the Palace via the neighboring North Entrance.
West Magazines
By looking down, you can see the beginning of the corridor that joins 18 long and narrow storerooms, covering an area of 1300 sq. m. (Fig.1). There were found 93 rectangular cists, “Kassellas” on the floor of storerooms and corridor. They seemed to be used for safe-keeping of precious equipment and vases.
The excavations also found large cists in the corridor that probably held the liquids. Εικ. Fig. 1. The pithoi (large storage jars) (Fig.2) of the “West Magazines” bear witness to the wealth of the Palace. The remains of about 150 pithoi were found, although there is room for about 400. The contents stored inside are unknown, although they could have been oil, wine, etc.
The archeologists also found clay tablets in this area. These clay tablets have writing in the Linear B script with records of local economy. They also discovered a large number of older clay seal impressions and clay tablets written in the Cretan Hieroglyphic script located at the north end of the corridor.
The West Porch
The West porch or the Corridor of the Procession was an open area with a roof facing the court. It was supported by one column, from which part of a gypsum base exists today. The east wall was decorated with a fresco depicting a leaping bull. A small guard room was adjacent to the porch in the back. The porch was closed off by a double door from where the long Corridor of the Procession began. It got its name from a wall fresco there depicting a procession of musicians and other people with gifts. A well-made floor continued to the central Court.
The West Court
Built of some massive gypsum blocks, the West Facade of the Palace rises up on one side that may have been used in ceremonies. The found settlements below this area belong to the Neolithic (6700-3200BC) and Pre-Palatial periods (3000 BC).
The Great Staircase
The great staircase and the upper floor to which it leads is largely Evans’ creation. Evans thought that it had a function similar to the first floor of the Italian Renaissance Palazzo, which was called the “Piano Nobile”. In this instance, he thought that the reception rooms of the Palace would be on the upper floor.
Evans also thought that there was the “Tri-Columnar Shrine” with a Treasury inside the Palace. The basis for his view lies in findings of collapsed ritual stone vases on the ground floor and the column and pillar bases. The rectangular building standing next to the stairs was built much later after the destruction of the Palace. Evans interpreted it as a “Greek Temple.”
The Figure-of-Eight Shields fresco
The figure of 8 shields frescoes, palace in Knossos.
The fresco with “Figure-of-Eight Shields” repeated in a stylized row, decorated the walls of the loggia of the “Grand Staircase,” leading to the official quarters of the palace. The fresco depicts the actual shields suspended on walls. They were made of either a wooden or metallic framework covered with ox-hide, represented by the dappled surface. The shields may have represented the military power of the Knossos palace’ ruler. Knossos, Palace, Final Palatial period (1450-1350/1300 BC).
The Ladies in Blue fresco
The “Ladies in Blue” is a partial composition depicting wealthy women in dresses and lavish jewelry set against blue background. Their coiffure adornment was restored based on a similar fresco fragment. Despite its fragmentary condition, the wall painting gives a sense of opulence and prosperity of the royal court with ladies and their hand gestures, displaying the richness of their jewelry. Knossos, Palace, Neo palatial period (1600-1450 BC).
The Griffins fresco
The Griffins fresco, Knossos, Heraklion, Crete, photo: Veronica Winters.
The Griffins fresco done in high-relief and tethered to columns decorated the “Great East Hall” of the palace of Knossos. The decoration of the hall also included religious emblems and representations in relief of boxing and bull-leaping games. According to Arthur Evans, this hall, located next to the “Grand Staircase”, was used for official ceremonies by the palace rulers. Knossos, Palace, Neo palatial period (1600-1450 BC).
Prince of the Lilies fresco
The prince of the lilies fresco inside the museum, Knossos.
The “Prince of the Lilies” is a high-relief fresco of a large mural. It’s emblematic image of Minoan Crete. The life-size figure is composed of three non-joining parts. He wears a richly colored kilt with a codpiece and belt. He wears a crown made of papyrus-lilies and peacock feathers. According to the excavator of Knossos, Arthur Evans, this figure was the “Ruler of Knossos”, the “Priest-King” and a personification of religious and secular authority. However, other scholars suggest different reconstructions and interpretations, according to which the “Prince” may be an athlete, a boxer, or a commanding ruler, while the crown is attributed to a priestess or a sphinx. Knossos, Palace, Neo palatial period (1600-1450 BC).
South Entrance, Corridor with the “Prince of the Lilies” fresco
The south part of the Palace has significant erosion. We can only see the foundations of the tiered levels. A tower-like projection is the only remaining part of the south entrance to the Palace. An ascending corridor led to the Central Court. The reconstructed corridor is the closest to the Central Court in the Palace. Evans put a copy of a relief wall painting here, of which only a few fragments were found (Fig. 1). The fragments showed a male figure wearing lily-shaped jewelry. The reconstruction you see here is unresolved. In Evans’s opinion, the picture represented the ‘Priest-King’. Other scholars think that it is either a prince or a female figure.
Mural/fresco with the lilies, Knossos. It’s part of a large mural composition that decorated the first floor of the Amnisos mansion in Knossos. This fresco is typical of the Minoan culture where the artists scraped a concave shape for stems and flowers to fill it with white paint.
Wall paintings of the Throne Room
There are 2 parts of the fragmentary wall painting that decorated the “Throne Room” at Knossos. The first one depicts a couchant griffin and the second one a palm tree, the forelimbs of another griffin, and the altars. These paintings were placed next to the throne on the wall opposite the entrance of the room. These fragments enable the reconstruction of the entire scene, full of symbolic connotations related to the religious and ceremonial use of the room. The real alabaster throne is integrated in a riverside landscape. Stylized reeds are painted on the walls. Palm trees, symbolizing the regenerative powers of nature, spring from the base of the throne. The griffins flanking the throne have no wings, thus interpreted as the permanent guardians of the authority symbolized by the throne itself. Knossos, Palace, Final Palatial period (1450-1350/1300 BC).
The Knossos palace likely wasn’t intentionally built as a maze in the sense of a trap with a single, hidden exit.
It does have complex design. The palace at Knossos had multiple stories, winding corridors, and numerous rooms. This strange layout could be easily mistaken for a maze, especially after centuries of partial collapse and reconstruction. Archaeologists have uncovered over 1300 rooms! The legend of the Minotaur’s labyrinth likely originated after the palace’s fall. The myth provided an explanation for the palace’s confusing layout. King Minos, according to the myth, had the brilliant craftsman Daedalus build a labyrinth to house the Minotaur. The excavated structures show a purposeful design for a grand palace complex, not a purposely confusing maze. The palace housed royalty, administrative functions, various people, artisans, merchants, priesthood, and workshops. While complex, it likely needed to be navigable for daily life as a complex administrative center.
Administration & Economy: Linear B texts
Linear B script
The 3,400 clay tablets inscribed in Linear B script from the palace of Knossos form part of the archives maintained by the new dynasty, which established itself at the palace following the destruction of most Minoan political centers in 1450 BC. In contrast to the preceding Linear A texts, which recorded the unknown language of the Minoans, the tablets written in syllabic Linear B script, date back to 1425-1300 BC. They are the earliest known texts written in Greek. They are temporary lists of accounts and recordings of goods, military equipment palace officials, dependents, and ritual offerings. They were incised into wet clay by 100 different scribes. Linear B texts got preserved by accident as they got baked in the fire that destroyed the palace.
The signs of Linear B script are derived from the Linear A script. Linear B has 89 syllabograms corresponding phonetically to syllables. They also include logograms, which were used as abbreviations of the commodities recorded, together with numerical symbols indicating quantities and units of weight and capacity. Long and thin “palm-leaf” tablets were used for individual registrations, while the rectangular “page” tablets were used for details and summary entries. Brief inscriptions are also found on sealings, i.e. lumps of clay stamped with seal imprints and used to label goods. Minoans labeled clay stirrup jars for transportation and storage of liquids, like olive oil and wine.
The Phaistos Disc found on the island of CreteSeals found in the area of Knossos palace, Crete, 1650-1350 BC.Stone palettes to grind colors, the palace at Knossos
The Minoan Religion & the World of the Dead
The snake goddess, Palace of Knossos, 1650-1550 BC. These are the most important cult objects from the Knossos Temple Repositories. The name comes from the snakes hand-held by the figures. These snakes symbolize the chthonic character of the goddess cult and the feline creature on her head suggests her dominion over the wildlife. Both goddesses wear expensive dresses. Large, nude chest symbolizes the female fertility or the goddess of nature.
The Hagia Triada Sarcophagus
Hagia Triada Sarcophagus closeups showing depicted art on the long sides of it.
The Limestone sarcophagus depicts ritual ceremonies in honor of the dead and transcendental scenes associated with the afterlife beliefs. The scenes are frescoes painted on plaster. You can see a depiction of a dead man on one long side of the sarcophagus. He wears a long tunic, standing in front of a building that could be a tomb. He is receiving offerings of a boat and animals. On the left, priestesses hold a lyre are pour libations into a bucket set between the columns with double axes. Birds sit on the axes, symbolizing the deity’ presence. Another long side depicts a bull’s sacrifice. The animal, trussed to a table, is being sacrificed to the accompaniment of a double flute and offerings made by a priestess at an altar. The altar is situated in front of a sanctuary crowned with horns of consecration. There is a pole with a double axe set between the sanctuary and the tree. The bird tops a double axe, indicating the epiphany of the deity. The two narrow sides have depictions of goddesses riding in chariots with griffins and horses or wild goats, and a procession of men. The sarcophagus was found in a rectangular built tomb and belonged to a ruler who, as the images narrate, was splendidly honored after his death by the palatial priesthood and the gods, on earth and in heavens. Hagia Triada, 1370-1300 BC.
The Larnakes
Clay larnakes imitate the wooden coffins. There are two types of the coffins. The first one is in the shape of a wooden chest with a gabled lid. The second one resembles a bathtub. The deceased were placed in a fetal position, perhaps signifying the symbolic return to the beginning of life in the womb.
Their iconography is, in a way, a continuation of the great fresco art that adorned the walls of the palaces. For example, the sarcophagus of Agia Triada was decorated in the same art style and technique as the frescoes. A complete narrative sequence, covering the ritual of the cult of the dead and Minoan perceptions and beliefs regarding the afterlife is depicted on its sides. Iconographic themes are mostly inspired by the plant, animal and marine worlds. They were rendered schematically without a narrative’ cohesion.
The obvious decorative aim of the motifs conceals a clear symbolic significance. These themes, isolated or in compositions, depict an abstracted version of the Minoan paradise. Marine creatures symbolize the sea across which lie the isles of the blessed dead and the Elysian Fields, according to the Homeric tradition. This otherworld of peace and eternal spring is indicated by trees, plants, birds and animals painted in dense juxtaposition on the larnax sides. The chariot and ship depicted on two larnakes show available transportation for a long journey over land and sea. Occasionally divine figures appear, the guardians of paradise, in attitudes of prayer or about to be enthroned, an image conveying the idea of the last judgement. These loose compositions, rich in meaning, are the final contribution of the folk painters of the Post palatial period to the pictorial art of prehistoric Crete.
The Warrior Graves and Graves with Bronzes, (1450-1300 BC)
Certain tombs, mainly in Knossos area, the sites of Zafer Papoura, Isopata Sellopoulo and the Venizeleio, contained a multitude of bronze weapons including swords, spearheads, daggers and halberds, as well as helmets. The most striking weapons include the swords with gold-covered hilts, gold nails and ivory pommels, intended as luxury and display objects.
They are insignia of the rank and status of an aristocratic warrior class which invested ideologically in the acquisition and use of weapons. The “Tomb of the Tripod Hearth” at Knossos, the Tholos Tomb A and the adjacent grave enclosure at Phourni, Archanes, andat Kalyvia Phaistos produced large assemblages of bronze banqueting vessels, such as cauldrons, jugs, bowls, washbowls, ladles and lamps. These items also functioned as markers of prosperity and social superiority. So did other grave offerings of gold jewelry, semiprecious stones, seals, bronze mirrors and implements, ivory objects and fine vessels.
Karphi goddesses with raised arms, 1200-1100 BC.
Five figurines with upraised arms, the goddesses, were found in the Post palatial settlement at Karphi. They have attached bird symbols and horns of consecration on their heads. The excavated artifacts also included a stylized, clay three-wheeled chariot rhyton with a charioteer and attached bulls’ heads, a clay tablet topped with a human head, and other cult objects and vessels of the period. They are clay tube, kalathoi, an openwork pot stand and a human-shaped rhyton. They were excavated from different parts of the settlement, indicating that the cult activities took place throughout the site.
Sacred symbols of a local cult
Small shrines in houses and peripheral administrative complexes served the needs of both a family and community. Open-air cult existed at some sanctuaries and in caves. Worshippers presented the deity with praying human figurines. Expertly crafted offerings for worship made of precious materials, such as bronze figurines, gold, silver and bronze artefacts, seals, jewelry, tables and stone vases- all became the ostentatious display of a person’s wealth. Such offerings are found in cult assemblages placed alongside numerous human and animal clay figurines. The realistic modelling of the bodies and the elaborate hairstyles of some male and female figurines highlight timeless social standards of men’s athletic bodies and women’s neat and elegant appearance. Three-dimensional clay models represent figures and images of official religious ideology, centered on the Epiphany of the Goddess, which arose in the palatial environment.
The Minoans used the religious symbols in depictions of religious significance or to mark the sanctity of spaces and buildings, in which they performed the cult acts. The emblematic symbol of the Minoan religion, the double axe, is probably derived from the real axe used to slay the sacrificial bull. Horns of consecration were also a sacred symbol, perhaps a schematic representation of the horns of the bull, the sacred cult animal. The sacral knot was made of cloth and served as a symbol of protection. The biconcave altar, a symbol of sanctity, was based on a real altar. The figure-of-eight shield may be an apotropaic symbol to ward off the evil.
Double Axes: Double-sided schist molds used for casting cult figures and symbols. These include the female figures with upraised arms holding double axes and flowers, double axes with indented edges, horns of consecration and a disc with astral symbols. The toothed wheel with a cross encircled by dots has been suggested to have been a device for predicting eclipses. Palaikastro, 1370-1200 BC.
There are two different examples of unusual cult sites and sanctuaries presented at the Sanctuary at Anemospilia, Archanes, and the Arkalochori Cave.
The Arkalochori Cave
A large assemblage of metal objects, used for religious rites and as votive offerings, was found in a small cave at Arkalochori in central Crete. The assemblage includes copper “bun” ingots, numerous bronze model swords and daggers, large bronze votive double axes, and a wealth of miniature double axes in gold, silver and bronze, and pieces of gold foil. However, there were no cult objects found at this cave like the figurines and offering tables commonly found at contemporary shrines.
It’s hard to explain the reason for placing these objects in such a small cave. They may had been a hoard of valuable metal objects hidden from the imminent danger. A large number of model weapons, long swords and daggers, may have been votive offerings made by a prominent group of warriors. They could have invested in the ideological value of the weapon as a symbol of status or authority (1700-1450 BC).
Sculpture
Lintel of Prinias temple, closeup of a goddess with panthers, 7th century BC, Daedalic art. The lintel decorated the main entrance to the Temple Aat Prinias. The goddess is the earliest surviving example of the seated figure style.
Greek art of the archaic period (7th-6th century BC) is marked by the development of monumental sculpture, namely the creation of life-size and over life-size statues in stone. Crete occupies a prominent position in the history of Daedalic sculpture of the 7th century BC named after Daedalus, the legendary craftsman and sculptor. The early date and the quality of the Cretan statues is the evidence of birth of Greek monumental sculpture on the island.
Following geometric period’s conventions for rendering the human features of the face and body, the archaic sculpture imprints human figures frontally. Such statues, especially the female ones, come from Astritsi, Eleftherna, Gortyna and other areas. Most Cretan statues were life-size made of local Cretan limestone. The island of Crete pioneers the development of architectural sculpture mostly used in the embellishment of temples and public buildings with statues and carved in relief representations. This decoration type can be seen in the temples of Prinias (possibly ancient Rizenia) and Gortyna.
At the end of the 6th cent. BC, the gravestones done in relief appear on the island of Crete. These gravestones marked the tombs of the dead, which were modeled after the Attic prototypes. Later on, the production in Crete decreases for political and social reasons.
Classical sculpture of the 5th and 4th cent. BC is represented by relatively few works of art (relief plaques and gravestones) showing Attic and Cycladic artistic influences. Rich artistic tradition of the island, however, has significant impact on ancient Greek art. Famous statues and architecture of the Hellenic world are attributed to two Cretan sculptors – Dipoinos and Skyllis, who were pupils of Daedalus.
The Statue of the Egyptian deity, Knossos. A standing male figure is decorated in a beautiful dress with stars with a snake whirling around him. He holds two scepters with a lotus and pallet. The deity figure combines the attributes of the Egyptian gods, Osiris, Sarapis and Imchotep. Roman period, 1-2 century AD.Statues with gods Pluto and Persephone, Knossos.
Group of statues with gods Pluto and Persephone, depicted as the Egyptian deities Sarapis and Isis, were worshiped in the Hellenistic period onwards in Greece. Pluto-Sarapis has the modius on his head, a utensil used for the measurement of grain. Persephone-Isis bears her symbols in the forehead, mainly the crescent moon, the solar disk and the snake (uraeus). She is depicted holding the sistrum in her right hand, an Egyptian musical instrument also known to Crete from pre-history. Her left hand holds the straps of the dog, Cerberus. The inclusion of Cerberus, the guardian of the underworld, into this group defines the two deities as gods of the underworld. The composition is a typical example of syncretism, the integration of beliefs from different religions during Hellenistic and Roman times. Gortyna, Temple of Egyptian Deities, Roman period, mid. 2nd cent. AD.Apollo with kitharafrom a marble table support, 125-150 AD, Knossos
Athletes & Acrobats: Bull-Leaping
An important aspect of Minoan public life were organized spectacles at which trained athletes engaged in contests of strength, endurance, and skill. There were several very popular but dangerous contests: bull-leaping, bull-hunting, and boar-hunting. Minoans also had wrestling, boxing, foot racing, chariot racing, somersaulting and other sport games.
The most spectacular Minoan acrobatic sport was bull-leaping. Young but trained athletes made a dangerous leap over the horns and back of a charging bull. Athletes of both sexes participated in this sport as recorded in the color of their skin, dark for men and white for women. The bull-leaping extravaganza is depicted in a series of wall paintings, gold rings and seals characteristic of the Minoan culture on Crete. The contests would have been held in large, outdoor spaces or even in the courts of the palaces. The Minoans cultivated the spirit of competition and excellence in sports that was later adopted by the ancient Greeks in the Olympic Games. Large crowds of excited spectators watched the games in Minoan Crete.
The Bull-Leaping Fresco
A bull-leaping fresco’s scene gives a vivid depiction of the sport. There are three participants, two white-skinned women and a brown-skinned man. One of the female athletes is restraining the bull by the horns to reduce its speed and prevent the leaper from a backward somersault. The second female athlete, standing behind the bull, is waiting with stretched arms to catch the leaper as he lands. The fresco was found on the east side of the palace of Knossos, with fragments of others depicting different stages of the same sport. Knossos-palace, 1600-1400 BC.
Beautiful places to see in Heraklion
The Morosini Fountain at Lions Square was built in 1628. The 16th-century Bembo Fountain in Kornaros Square, central city of Crete
The location of the Venetian Fortress is beautiful to look at turquoise water and city’s harbor.
The city’s center has a few significant buildings and a church. In addition, the Agios Minas Cathedral is a must-see.
The Agios Minas Cathedral
The Agios Minas Cathedral, Crete.
Built in late 19th century, this beautiful church is dedicated to Saint Menas, the martyr who lived around 285-309 A.D. The patron saint of Heraklion, he is depicted on a silver icon inside the church. The interior space is inspirational for anyone to see! It features colorful, byzantine-style murals and incredible chandeliers decorated with saints, double eagle and peacock designs. The stained-glass windows cast beautiful light on the walls and floor.
In conclusion, I hope I got you interested in visiting Heraklion, Greece to discover Knossos, the place and palace of the Minoan civilization on your own terms. As a reminder, the majority of this information comes from the museums on Crete. Visit the Heraklion Archaeological Museum for more information & tickets.
Greek art styles
Greek art is generally divided into four major periods:
Geometric Period (900 – 700 BCE):
Emerging from the Greek Dark Ages, Geometric art is characterized by its focus on geometric patterns and stylized figures.
Pottery decoration is prominent, featuring abstract motifs like meanders, triangles, and swastikas.
Human and animal figures are depicted in a simplified, geometric manner.
Archaic Period (700 – 480 BCE):
This period witnessed a shift towards more naturalistic depictions.
Sculptors began carving figures in the nude, adhering to a rigid and idealized form known as the Archaic smile.
Pottery decoration continued to evolve, with the introduction of the black-figure technique where figures are painted in black silhouette against a red background.
Classical Period (480 – 323 BCE):
Considered the pinnacle of Greek art, the Classical period emphasized balance, proportion, and realism.
Human figures were depicted in more natural poses with a focus on ideal beauty and perfect anatomy.
The red-figure technique dominated pottery decoration, with Greek mythological and narrative scenes.
Famous Classical sculptors like Phidias and Polyclitus developed dominant styles portraying gods and heroes in idealized way.
Hellenistic Period (323 – 31 BCE):
Following the conquests of Alexander the Great, Hellenistic art embraced a wider range of emotions and expressions.
Sculptures became more dynamic and dramatic, capturing movement and individual personalities, rather than idealized faces.
Art from this period often reflected a more theatrical and emotional style.
Genre scenes depicting everyday life gained popularity alongside mythological themes.
Mycenae is the ancient archeological site near Mykines in Argolis, Greece. It’s a fascinating place to visit when you learn about its connection to the ancient Greek history. 16th century BC to be exact. It’s a place of one of the oldest known cultures in the world- the Mycenaeans. They wrote in Linear B text, the cyclopes built walls and people worshiped the Earth goddess. Perseus founded Mycenae and Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, set out against Troy in the Trojan War. Go on a journey to discover myths and art of ancient Greece.
